;PARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE  AND  LABOR 
BUREAU  OF  MANUFACTURES 
JOHN  M,  CARSON,  Chief 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE: 

GERMANY,  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  SWITZERLAND 


By 

W.  A.  GRAHAM  CLARK 

Special  Agent  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor 


WITH  REPORTS  FROM  VARIOUS  CONSULAR  OFFICERS 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE  AND  LABOR 
BUREAU  OF  MANUFACTURES 

JOHN  M.  CARSON,  Chief 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE: 

GERMANY,  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  SWITZERLAND 

By 

W.  A.  GRAHAM  CLARK 

Special  Agent  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor 


WITH  REPORTS  FROM  VARIOUS  CONSULAR  OFFICERS 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1908 


CONTENTS. 


Pa.^e. 

Letter  of  submittal  '    5 

Introduction   7 

Germany   11 

Exports  of  cotton  goods   13 

Growth  of  manufactures      19 

Cotton  mills   27 

Employees'  compulsory  insurance   36 

Trade  organizations   45 

Textiles  from  cotton  waste   49 

Embroideries  and  laces   61 

Barmen  district   61 

Plauen  district   72 

Ribbon  weaving   82 

Knit-goods  manufacture   90 

Reports  from  consular  officers   98 

Aix  la  Chapelle   98 

Bamberg   100 

Breslau   101 

Chemnitz   102 

Crefeld   103 

Diisseldorf     104 

Eibenstock   104 

Freiburg   107 

Glauchau...      109 

Hanover   110 

Leipzig  ■.   112 

Magdeburg   113 

Munich   114 

Plauen   114 

Stuttgart  !   119 

Zittau   120 

Austria   121 

Cotton  mills  and  equipment   123 

Wages  and  labor  conditions   129 

Sales  agreements    136 

Reports  from  consular  officers   143 

Carlsbad   143 

Prague   146 

Reichenberg   147 

Hungary   149 

Cotton  factories   151 

Switzerland   159 

Cotton  goods  production  _   161 

a 


^  ?^  ^  \-I 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Textiles  from  cotton  waste:  Page. 

Fig.  1.  Ring  spinning  frame  with  drawing   .  55 

Fig.  2.  Rolls  and  roller  stand  of  ring  frame   56 

Fig.  3.  Intermittent  second  draft  arrangement  of  ring  frame   57 

Fig.  4.  Tubular  cop  machine   58 

Figs.  5,  6,  and  7.  Details  of  operations  of  tubular  cop  machine   59 

Embroideries  and  laces: 

Fig.  8.  Guide  grooves  for  (A)  round  braid,  (B)  fiat  braid,  (C)  stripe 

braid,  and  (D)  Barmen  lace   64 

Fig.  9.  Regular  style  of  machine  used  in  making  Barmen  lace   66 

Fig.  10.  Guide  grooves  in  top  plate  of  machine  shown  in  Fig.  9   66 

Fig.  11,  Vertical  bobbin  holder.  Fig.  12.  Bobbin  carrier,  showing  outside 
tension  weight.  Fig.  13.  Courses  of  bobbins  in  making  three- 
line  lace   68 

Fig.  14.  A  typical  lace  factory  at  Plauen    78 

Ribbon  weaving: 

Fig.  15.  First  type  of  ribbon  loom   84 

Fig.  16.  Second  type  of  ribbon  loom   85 

Fig.  17.  a,  a,  German  right-hand  twist;  6,  h,  American  right-hand  twist..  87 

Facing  page. 

Map  showing  location  of  the  cotton-manufacturing  industry  in  Germany   20 

Interior  of  a  Saxon  home,  showing  an  old-fashioned  hand  loom   24 

One  of  the  many  Saxon  weaving  mills   26 

A  10-yard  schifiii  machine  in  use  at  Plauen;  the  largest  single  machine  made.  76 

Automatic  lace-making  machines  used  at  Plauen   78 

4 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Department  or  Commerce  and  Labor, 

Bureau  of  Manufactures, 
Washington,  October  22,  1908. 
Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  hereAvith  a  series  of  reports  from 
Special  Agent  "W.  A.  Graham  Clark  on  the  cotton-manufacturing 
industry  in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Switzerland. 

The  methods  and  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
textiles,  notably  those  specialties  which  find  a  large  market  in  the 
United  States,  the  wages  paid,  and  other  matters  incidental  to  the 
cost  of  production,  are  described  in  appropriate  chapters  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  of  value  and  interest  to  American  mauLifacturers. 
To  these  reports  have  been  added  a  number  from  consular  officers  in 
various  sections  giving  additional  matter  of  value. 
Respectfully, 

John  M.  Carson, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 

To  Hon.  Oscar  S.  Straus, 

Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor, 

5 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Although  cotton  manufacturing  is  an  old  industry  in  Germany, 
having  been  carried  on  by  hand  for  many  years  previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery,  it  was  not  until  1879  that  any  great  advances 
in  j)roduction  were  made.'  For  a  long  time  Germany  obtained  the 
bulk  of  its  cotton  goods  abroad,  mainly  from  England,  but  its  output 
has  steadily  groAvn  in  importance  until  now  it  is  only  exceeded  by  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States  in  the  extent  of  its 
manufactures. 

The  rate  of  growth  in  the  different  sections  has  not  been  the  same. 
Saxony  is  the  leading  State  in  cotton  manufacturing  and  has  nearly 
trebled  its  spindles  in  the  last  twenty  years,  but  its  increase  has  been 
even  greater  in  special  lines  like  knitting  and  embroidering.  AVest- 
phalia,  on  the  Rhine,  has  shown  the  most  remarkable  progress  in  the 
number  of  spindles,  having  in  1905  nearly  seven  times  as  many  spin- 
dles as  in  1887.  The  total  number  of  spindles  in  the  Empire  in  1887 
was  5,054,795,  which  consumed  l,00r),983  bales  of  cotton,  and  in  1905 
they  had  increased  to  8,832,01  (>,  with  a  consumption  of  1,701,309  bales 
of  cotton,  an  increase  of  approximately  75  per  cent  both  in  spindleage 
and  cotton  consumption.  There  are  21  toAvns  having  more  than 
100,000  spindles  each,  and  these  21  towns  united  have  more  than  half 
the  spindles  in  Germany.  The  number  of  looms  in  operation  in  1905 
was  estimated  as  231,199.  The  weaving  industry  is  more  scattered, 
and  there  are  more  than  50  loAvns  with  over  1,000  looms  each.  The 
average  spinning  mill  has  26,500  spindles,  and  the  average  weaving 
mill  364  looms. 

CJERMAN  VERSUS  AMERICAN  EXPORTS  OF  COTTON  GOODS. 

The  importance  of  Germany's  output  of  cotton  goods  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  next  to  Great  Britain  it  is  the  largest  exporter  of  such 
goods  in  the  world.  The  German  export  trade  is  devoted  more  par- 
ticularly to  special  lines,  such  as  knit,  embroidered,  braided,  and 
similar  products,  rather  than  to  the  regular  cotton  cloths  and  yarns. 

In  the  calendar  year  1907  Germany  exported  cotton  goods  to  the 
value  of  $89,015,570  and  cotton  yarns  to  the  value  of  $7,886,566,  or 
a  total  of  $96,902,136.  This  total  would  doubtless  have  exceeded 
$100,000,000  for  the  year  but  for  the  financial  depression  in  the  best 
foreign  markets  dui-ing  the  closing  months. 

7 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


In  the  same  period  the  United  States  exported  $294,012  worth 
of  cotton  yarn,  $14,900,421  of  cotton  cloths,  $5,147,748  of  wearing 
apparel,  and  $3,401,299  of  other  manufactures,  or  a  total  for  cotton 
manufactures  of  $23,742,480,  a  little  less  than  one- fourth  the  amount 
of  similar  exports  from  Germany.  Statistical  tables  include  also 
$2,579,582  worth  of  cotton  waste  among  American  exports  of  manu- 
factured goods,  which  can  not  be  considered  as  a  credit  item  to  the 
industry,  but  rather  as  a  debit.  The  largest  share  of  the  cotton  waste 
and  linter  exports  goes  to  Germany,  where  they  are  converted  into 
valuable  textile  products.  The  exports  of  raAv  cotton  from  the 
United  States  to  Germany  alone  in  1907  reached  $131,353,656,  or 
over  five  times  the  value  of  the  export  of  cotton  manufactures  from 
the  United  States  to  the  entire  world. 

THE  AMERICAN  MARKET  CONCENTRATION  OF  SPECIALTIES. 

The  German  export  of  manufactured  cotton  goods  is  of  interest 
to  the  United  States,  not  so  much  for  its  competition  in  foreign  mar- 
kets as  for  its  competition  with  American  cotton  goods  in  the  home 
market  of  the  latter.  It  is  largely  due  to  the  market  afforded  in  the 
United  States  to  German  cotton  manufacturers  that  their  export 
business  has  increased  with  such  strides,  having  advanced  from  $54,- 
500,000  in  1899  to  $97,000,000  in  1907.  At  present  Germany  occupies 
the  third  place  in  supplying  the  vast  amount  of  cotton  textile  manu- 
factures purchased  abroad  by  the  United  States,  being  surpassed 
only  by  the  United  Kingdom  and  Switzerland.  This  trade  has  been 
steadily  increasing  yearly,  and  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1907, 
Germany  sent  $18,212,531  worth  of  cotton  manufactures  to  the  United 
States,  over  two-thirds  of  which  consisted  of  knit  goods,  laces,  and 
embroideries. 

Each  special  branch  of  cotton  manufacturing  in  Germany  tends  to 
concentrate  in  some  particular  section  and  around  some  particular 
town.  Chemnitz  is  known  for  hosiery,  Plauen  for  embroidered  laces, 
Gera  for  fine  dress  goods,  Crimmitzschau  for  vigogne  yarn,  Augsburg 
for  fine  spinning,  Mulhausen  for  fine  weaving,  Elberfield  for  colored 
goods,  Crefeld  for  velvets,  and  Barmen  for  braided  work. 

NATIONAL  INSURANCE  LAAVS  TRADES  UNIONS. 

Paternal  laws  have  been  enacted  in  Germany  of  more  far-reach- 
ing character  than  those  adopted  by  any  other  nation,  and  prominent 
among  such  laws  are  those  in  regard  to  compulsory  insurance  of 
workmen,  which  apply  to  all  workers  in  Germany,  textile  or  other- 
wise. Every  worker,  whether  male  or  female,  who  receives  under 
2,000  marks  ($476)  a  year  has  to  insure  against  sickness  and  against 
old  age  or  invalidism,  and  has  to  be  insured  by  his  employer  against 
accident. 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


Nearly  one-tenth  of  the  German  workers  are  now  estimated  to 
belong  to  some  trades  union.  The  rapid  increase  of  unions  among  the 
Avorkers  has  within  the  last  few  years  led  to  similar  organizations 
being  formed  among  the  employers  for  mutual  protection.  . 

IMPORTS  or   COTTON   INTO  AUSTRIA- HUNGARY. 

The  imports  of  raw  cotton  into  Austria-Hungary  in  1907  amounted 
to  about  $50,000,000,  of  which  G7  per  cent,  or  $33,500,000  worth,  was 
supplied  by  the  United  States.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  American 
cotton  is  imported  via  Bremen,  Germany,  and  is  included  in  the 
American  exports  to  Germany,  the  direct  shipments  into  Austria- 
Hungary  last  year,  according  to  United  States  statistics,  being  but  a 
trifle  over  $6,000,000.  The  total  imports  of  raw  cotton  in  1907  showed 
an  increase  of  over  $7,500,000  over  the  previous  year,  owning  to  the 
expansion  in  the  home  consumption  of  cotton  goods,  though  there 
has  also  been  a  steady  growth  in  the  export  trade. 

The  exports  of  cotton  manufactures  from  Austria-Hungary  in  1907 
amounted  to  about  $12,500,000,  of  which  less  than  $300,000  worth 
was  sent  to  the  United  States. 

COTTON  MANUFACTURING  IN  AUSTRIA. 

Cotton  manufacturing  is  the  leading  industry  of  Austria,  and  is 
steadily  advancing  in  importance.  It  is  estimated  that  on  January  1, 
1907,  there  w^ere  3,512,122  spindles  in  operation,  to  which  about 
000,000  spindles  were  added  during  the  jenr,  making  the  total  over 
4,000,000  spindles.  The  majority  of  the  spindles  are  mule,  this  class 
being  estimated  as  about  double  the  number  of  ring  spindles.  The 
quality  of  the  production  has  also  been  raised,  and  the  mills  now"  pro- 
duce yarns  and  cloth  that  were  formerly  exclusively  imported. 

The  majority  of  the  mills  are  small,  and  are  mostly  of  private  own- 
ership, there  being  but  22  mills  operating  over  50,000  spindles  each. 
The  tendency  is  for  companies  owning  several  small  plants  to  grad- 
ually build  up  the  ones  best  located  and  drop  the  others.  The  most 
important  mills  are  located  in  Bohemia,  wdiich  now  contains  about 
60  per  cent  of  the  mills  of  Austria. 

There  is  great  variation  in  Avages  between  the  different  sections 
and  between  the  town  and  country  mills  in  the  sarne  section.  From 
wage  lists  obtained  at  various  mills  it  would  seem  that  50  cents  per 
day  might  be  taken  as  the  average  cotton-mill  wage  in  Austria. 

GOVERNMENT  AID  TO  MILLS  IN  HUNGARY. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  is  yet  in  its  infancy  in  Hungary. 
On  January  1,  1907,  the  number  of  spindles  was  estimated  as  139,682, 
to  which  additions  were  made  during  the  year  so  that  the  total  num- 
ber reached  perhaps  200,000.  The  present  consumption  of  cotton  is 
about  50,000  bales  a  year.    Mills  make  mainly  coarse  goods,  Cabots, 


10 


INTKODUCTIOK. 


and  some  colored  goods.  The  skilled  help  employed  comes  mainly 
from  Austria. 

In  order  to  accelerate  the  growth  of  the  cotton  industry  the  Hun- 
garian Government  grants  a  number  of  important  concessions  to  new 
mills  in  the  way  of  exemptions  from  various  classes  of  taxes,  reduced 
rates  and  other  privileges  from  the  state  railways,  and  a  state  sub- 
sidy equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  capital  stock,  payable  in  ten  yearly 
installments.  It  is  expected  that  these  measures  will  result  in  the 
industry  being  largely  increased  in  the  next  few  years. 

PRODUCTION  or  SPECIALTIES  IN  SWITZERLAND. 

The  Swiss  cotton  industry  is  an  old  one,  and  Switzerland  was  one 
of  the  first  countries  to  take  advantage  of  the  English  inventions  in 
the  early  development  of  cotton  manufacturing.  Swiss  cotton  mills 
now  stand  in  the  front  rank  in  the  production  of  fine  yarns  and  cloth, 
and  in  some  lines  their  only  competitor  is  Great  Britain.  However, 
the  cotton  mills  have  remained  almost  stationary  for  the  last  ten 
years,  and  only  in  special  lines  of  manufacturing,  such  as  the  em- 
broidery business,  has  there  been  any  progress.  The  advance  in  this 
direction  has  been  of  great  help  in  enabling  the  mills  to  find  an  out- 
let for  their  cloth  and  yarn. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  year  there  were  in  operation  1,499,- 
170  spinning  spindles,  with  9,900  operatives;  117,782  doubling  spin- 
dles, with  2,342  operatives ;  and  22,709  looms,  with  13,854  operatives. 

About  60  per  cent  of  the  raw  cotton  used  in  Swiss  mills  is  Ameri- 
can, the  imports  from  the  United  States  in  1906,  the  latest  figures 
available,  being  30,111,268  pounds.  The  imports  of  cotton  goods 
are  steadily  increasing,  owing  to  the  embroidery  industry. 

The  imports  of  manufactured  cotton  goods  into  the  United  States 
from  Switzerland  during  the  past  tAVo  fiscal  years  ended  June  30 
have  been  as  follows : 


Articles. 

1907. 

1908. 

Cotton  cloths  

$738, 213 
250,  002 
13, 979,808 

$569, 005 
263, 966 
13, 209, 483 

Knit  goods  : . . . 

Laces  and  embroideries  

14,908,083 

14,042,454 

Importations  of  miscellaneous  Swiss  cotton  manufactures  aggre- 
gate about  $500,000  annually  in  addition  to  the  foregoing. 


GERMANY 


11 


EXPORTS  OF  COTTON  GOODS. 


REVIEW    OF    THE    VAST    AND    CROWING    TEXTILE    TRADE  EXCEEDED  IN 

IMPORTANCE  ONLY  BY  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Ill  the  calendar  year  1907  Germany  exported  cotton  yarn  to  the 
value  of  $7,886,566,  and  cotton  goods  to  the  value  of  $89,015,570,  or  a 
total  of  $96,902,136.  If  it  had  not  been  for  the  financial  depression 
in  her  best  markets  during  the  last  months  of  the  year  this  total 
would  have  been  considerably  over  $100^000,000.  In  the  same  year 
the  United  States  exported  $294,012  of  cotton  yarn,  $14,900,421  of 
cotton  cloths,  $5,147,748  of  wearing  apparel,  $2,579,582  of  cotton- 
mill  waste,  and  $3,401,299  of  other  cotton  goods,  or  a  total  for  cotton 
manufactures  of  $26,323,062.  Next  to  Great  Britain  Germany  is  the 
largest  exporter  of  cotton  manufactures  in  the  Avorld. 

Cotton  manufacturing  is  an  old  industry  in  Germany,  but  it  was 
not  until  about  1879  that  there  began  the  development  of  the  modern 
German  cotton  manufacturing  industry,  and  not  until  some  ten  years 
later  that  the  export  business  began  to  attain  such  large  proportions. 
Since  then  it  has  steadily,  though  with  occasional  setbacks,  increased 
until  it  has  reached  its  present  strength  and  occupies  the  proud  posi- 
tion of  having  in  the  last  year  exported  nearly  four  times  as  much 
manufactures  of  cotton  as  did  the  IJnited  States. 

GERMAN  TEXTILE  SPECIALTIES. 

The  German  export  of  manufactured  goods  is  of  interest  to  the 
United  States,  not  so  much  for  its  competition  with  American  cotton 
fabrics  in  foreign  markets  as  for  its  competition  with  American  cot- 
ton goods  in  the  home  market  of  the  latter,  and  it  is  largely  due  to 
the  market  afforded  German  cotton  manufacturers  in  the  United 
States  that  their  export  business  has  increased  with  such  strides.  A 
striking  instance  of  the  extent  to  which  their  factories  depend  on  the 
American  trade  is  now  shown  at  Chemnitz,  Plauen,  Crefeld,  Barmen, 
etc.,  where  I  have  found  factory  after  factory  running  short  time  and  a 
good  many  closing  down  owing  to  the  falling  off  in  American  orders. 

There  are  two  noticeable  points  about  the  German  export  trade  in 
cotton  manufactures.  One  is  that  it  does  not  depend  on  regular  cot- 
ton cloths  and  yarn,  but  more  on  what  might  be  called  special  lines, 
such  as  knitting,  embroidering,  braiding,  etc.  Another  is  that  Ger- 
many does  comparatively  little  business  in  cotton  manufactures  with 
uncivilized  or  semicivilized  countries,  but  depends  mainly  on  Europe 
and  America  for  her  markets,  looking  especially  to  the  great  cotton 
manufacturing  centers  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
After  these  two  countries  Germany  sells  the  next  largest  amounts  to 

13 


14 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Austria-Hungary,  the  Netherlands,  Russia,  and  other  European 
countries,  and  smaller  amounts  to  India,  Chile,  Argentina,  and  Brazil. 
To  all  other  countries  of  the  world,  including  China,  her  shipments 
of  cotton  manufactures  are  very  small.  Roughly  speaking,  three- 
fifths  of  the  cotton  exports  go  to  Europe,  one-fifth  to  North  America, 
and  the  remaining  one-fifth  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 

COTTON  IMPORTS  UTILIZATION  OF  LOW- COST  FIBER. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  exports  of  German  cotton  manufactures 
consist  of  cheap  goods  and  Germany  uses  a  large  amount  of  cheap 
cotton.  Next  to  Japan  it  is  the  largest  importer  of  Indian  cotton. 
Ordinarily  Germany  imports  some  70  per  cent  of  her  cotton  from  the 
United  States,  20  per  cent  from  India,  8  per  cent  from  Egypt,  and 
2  per  cent  from  other  countries.  In  1907  the  total  amounted  in  value 
to  $127,765,064,  distributed  by  weight  as  follows : 


Imports  from — 

Pounds. 

Imports  from— 

Pounds. 

United  States  _    _ 

714,719,291 
238,045,885 
80,298,993 
6,588,858 
3,691,039 
2,256,235 
2,207,967 

Togoland-.    

498,765 
308,288 
327,735 
1,023,318 

British  India.-- 

Egypt                                       -  -. 

German  West  Africa- 

Dutch  India   _-     ._ _  . 

Unclassified-—        ---  - 

Mexico       -     _   -    -  _   

Turkey  in  Asia.- 

1,050,026,374 

China                  _  _—   

Part  of  the  Indian  cotton  is  used  in  the  German  home  trade  and 
part  is  exported  in  the  shape  of  yarn  to  Hungary  and  other  places, 
though  a  large  portion  is  mixed  with  American  cotton  and  used  to 
lower  the  price  of  export  goods. 

Germany  can  not  compete  with  England  on  very  fine  goods,  with 
Switzerland  on  very  fine  embroideries,  with  the  United  States  in  a 
pure  sized  sheeting,  nor  with  India  on  cheap  yarns,  and  the  Empire 
can  not  compete  with  Italy  on  cheap  colored  cottons  to  any  very 
large  extent.  Germany  has  therefore  confined  export  textile  manu- 
facturing largely  to  the  making  of  certain  specialties,  like  hosiery, 
gloves,  etched  lace,  edgings,  braids,  etc. 

The  main  cotton  manufactures  exported  from  Germany  in  order 
of  value  are  (1)  colored  goods,  (2)  hosiery,  (3)  knitted  gloves,  (4) 
lace,  (5)  yarn,  (6)  embroidery,  (7)  trimmings.  The  knit  goods 
industry  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  export  producing  lines, 
and  its  steady  growth  accounts  for  the  increase  of  shipments  of 
cotton  manufactures  to  the  United  States. 

EXPORTS  DOUBLE  IN  A  DECADE. 


In  the  last  ten  years  Germany's  export  of  cotton  goods  has  about 
doubled.  The  steady  progress  made  is  shown  by  the  following  table, 
the  amounts  representing  millions  of  dollars : 


Description. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

Cotton  goods  

49.05 
5.45 

58.24 
6.92 

52.31 
6.78 

61.69 
7.54 

71.78 
7.74 

80.18 
7.09 

90.49 
8.11 

93.68 
7.64 

89.00 
8.00 

97.00 

Cotton  yarn   _-  —      __  . 

TotaL.    

54.50 

65.16 

59.09 

69.23 

79.52 

87.27 

98.60 

101.32 

GEKMANY  EXPORTS  OF  COTTON  GOODS. 


15 


The  imports  of  cotton  manufactures  into  Germany  for  the  same 
years,  in  millions  of  dollars,  were  as  follows : 


Description.  * 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

Ootton  goods  

Ootton  yarn  _          _  _  _ 

Total 

7.74 
13.23 

8.38 
14.97 

7.47 
11.57 

8.26 
12.19 

8.64 
14.30 

9.66 
15.90 

10.71 
14.54 

25.25 

13.33 
19.61 

14.50 
29.17 

20.97 

23.35 

19.04 

20.45 

22.94 

25.56 

32.94 

43.67 

EXTENT  OF  THE  YARN  TRADE. 

In  regard  to  the  imports  it  is  seen  that  the  principal  item  is  yarn. 
Those  mainly  imported  into  Germany  are  fine  yarns  for  use  in  special 
lines  like  embroidery  and  lace  making.  The  exports  in  this  branch 
consist  mainly  of  thread  and  of  coarse  yarns.  The  numbers  of  the 
regular  yarns  imported  into  and  exported  from  Germany — not  con- 
sidering vigogne  and  special  yarns — were,  in  pounds,  as  follows  for 
the  vear  1907: 


Kind. 

Single  yarns. 

Ply  yarns,  single  twist. 

Unbleached. 

Bleached,  dyed,  or 
printed. 

Unbleached. 

Bleached,  dyed,  or 
printed. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Under  No.  11. 
Nos.lltol6_ 
Nos.l7to21_. 
Nos.22to31_ 
Nos.82to46_ 
Over  No. 47— 

TotaL. 

4,148,810 
6,600,980 
7,120,683 
9,706,857 
13.374,533 
17,484,332 

2,970,992 
938,243 
569,954 
755,311 
374,680 
66,781 

918,186 
499,426 
63,034 
31,517 
43,419 
7,715 

3,670,542 
892,400 

1,379,704 
900,554 
952,5()9 
245,525 

255,884 
113,726 
216,874 
1,684,297 
5,853,824 
19,175,461 

230,098 
119,898 
144,362 
197,919 
81,768 
322,665 

126,950 
36,366 
31,076 
27,550 
17,632 
34,824 

417,658 

324,649 
453,804 
408,842 
450,938 
992,682 

58,436,195  '  5,675,961 

1,563,297  8,041,294 

27,300,066  1,096,710 

274,398 

3,048,573 

The  largest  quantities  imported  are  seen  to  be  gray  yarns  above 
No.  47,  part  single  and  part  doubled.  The  exported  yarns  are  seen 
to  be  mainly  the  coarse  numbers.  The  bulk  of  the  yarn  imported  (in 
1907,  71,464,700  pounds  out  of  88,381,282)  comes  from  Great  Britain, 
with  small  quantities  from  Switzerland,  India,  and  France.  The 
yarns  exported  go  mainly  to  European  countries,  Holland,  Great 
Britain,  Austria-Hungary,  etc.,  and  there  are  comparatively  small 
shipments  to  other  countries.  They  do  a  small  business  in  this  line 
in  Turkey  and  Argentina,  but  very  little  in  China,  India,  etc. 

LAST  year's  imports  AND  EXPORTS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  weight  and-  value  of  cotton  and 
cotton  manufactures  imported  into  and  exported  from  Germany  in 
1907: 


Description. 

Imported. 

Exported. 

Pounds. 

1,050,026,374 
370,052 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Ootton  in  bales       _       _      _  _  __ 

Bleached  cotton      _     _   _    . 

$127,765,064 
54,264 

112,333,031 
4,125,227 

^3,804,238 
623,560 

Total  cotton.              _  _   

1.050,396,426 

127,819,328 

116,458,258 

14,427,798 

Roving  and  slubbing         _    _ 

8,155 

1,190 

46,504 
1,123,820 

5,675,961 
8,041,294 

1,096,710 
3,048,573 
322,886 
721,369 

8,380 
175.882 

1,011,262 
1,787,380 

308,686 
1,129,072 
174,454 
412.930 

Vigogne  yarn..                                    _  ___ 

Single  yarns: 

Bleached,  dyed,  or  printed-  .  _ 

Unbleached---   -      -   _    -   

Ply  yarns: 

Single  twist,  unbleached               -   _  _ 
Single  twist,  bleached,  dyed,  or  printed--- 

Cnb1etwi«!t,  unbleached      _  _  -   

Cable  twist,  bleached,  dyed,  or  printed  

58,436,195 
1,563,297 

27,300,066 
274,398 
58,406 
31.738 

16,290,624 
300,118 

12,208,448 
83,300 
34,034 
19,516 

16  COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  ETJKOPE. 


Description. 

Imported. 

Exported. 

Pounds . 

Value. 

Pounds . 

Value. 

Cotton  thread —  

Unclassified  yarns      .__ 

708,887 

$353,668 

.  7,033,184 
39,672 

$2,850,962 
27,608 

Total  yarn,  etc_   

88,381,142 

29,290,898 

27,149,973 

 :  

7,886,566 



Unbleached  cloths,  weighing  per  square  me- 
ter— 

80  grams  or  over  __________ 

10,077,790 

3,917,718 

3,371,679 

1,302.098 

40  to  80  grams             _  _  

2,144,712 

1,036,014 

2,016,219 

973,182 

Under  40  grams   _  

331,041 

319,872 

292,250 

282,268 

Dressed  or  bleached  cloths                     _   _  __ 

2,259,320 

1,097,894 

7,936,384 

3,770,872 

Cloths  dyed,  printed,  or  colored     _      __  _ 

2,616,148 

1,276,870 

58,305,226 

25,210,388 

Knitted  and  netted  stuffs  _       _  __   

54,218 

24,038 

596,743 

270,605 

Gloves_-   _-     -_-                    _     -  — 

12,342 

29,274 

4,743,008 

11,267,872 

Stockings  or  socks  ________ 

35,705 

34,034 

19,660,121 

18,929,330 

Underclothing-     _   __   __    .._ 

40,113 

19,278 

7,984,431 

3,699,234 

Fishing  nets     __      __     __       ___  _     _  - 

406,418 

101,626 

511,769 

267,512 

Other  knitted  or  netted  goods  __    _—  ___ 

9,918 

6,902 

2,834,564 

1,974,686 

Lace  of  all  kinds                   —         _     __  . 

619,544 

2,007,054 

4,556,329 

9,098,026 

Embroidery  on  cotton  foundation  

387  684 

1  0^6  4001 

D, / lo, oyo 

Velvet  and  plush  tissues                     __   _  _ 

1,984^702 

973,896 

2,602,704 

2,279,802 

Fire  and  other  hose  and  girths  _       _     _  _ 

97  196 

36  414 

g-j9  294 

Furniture  and  upholstery  goods.  _  . 

311^646 

252 ',518 

1,250,990 

738^276 

Open  woven  tissues  for  curtains   

40,994 

60,452 

716,080 

511,938 

"Wicks,  woven  or  plaited- _ 

7,714 

2,380 

841,267 

5,28,718 

Tulle  _   .    -     

1,068,525 

2,130,814 

135,987 

205,632 

105,131 

113,526 

147,448 

113,288 

Cotton  felts_   ___     __        —   __   __  . 

16,971 

5,712 

245,746 

75,208 

Rope,  cord,  or  twine  

42,758 

10,234 

125,408 

32,844 

193,732 

254,899 

Total  cloth,  etc   _   

Total  cotton  manufactures                  .  . 

22,640,590 

14,493,010 

124,726,193 

89,015,570 

43,783,908 

96,902.136 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  FABRIC  PRODUCTIONS. 

As  noted  in  the  statistics  the  cotton  goods  go  mainly  to  other 
European  countries  and  the  United  States,  with  smaller  quantities  to 
other  regions.  Of  the  small  amount  of  gray  goods  shipped  the  largest 
consumers  are  Great  Britain  and  Switzerland.  Included  in  this  are 
muslins,  shirtings,  and  some  sheetings.  The  bleached  goods  consist 
of  muslins,  calicoes,  and  similar  goods,  besides  smaller  amounts  of  a 
wide  range  of  varieties.  The  largest  market  is  the  United  States, 
then  Great  Britain,  Switzerland  (mainly  muslin  for  embroidery 
foundation),  Argentina,  etc.  The  goods  comprised  under  the  head 
of  colored,  dyed,  and  printed  goods  amount  to  over  $25,000,000  and 
are  scattered  abroad  more  widely  than  any  of  the  other  products  of 
the  German  cotton  mills.  The  main  markets  found  for  these  goods 
and  the  amounts  sent  to  each  in  1907,  in  pounds,  were  as  follows : 


Country. 

Pounds. 

Country. 

Pounds. 

Country. 

Pounds. 

United  States  _ 

1,611,124 
7,401,472 
4,739,922 
4,142,198 

Holland  —  _ 

3,419,065 
3,341,586 
3,113,150 
2,934,185 

Switzerland__   ._  . 

2,673,232 
2,398,513 
1,893,677 
1,332,538 

Great  Britain__   _  __ 

Brazil  

Roumania  

India    

Turkey    

Belgium  

Argentina  

Chile__  _   

Egypt    

Included  under  this  heading  is  a  wide  range  of  goods  from  the 
coarsest  checks  and  stripes  to  Jacquard  work.  The  bulk  of  these  goods 
is  of  medium  grade.  Some  of  the  prints  shipped  from  Mulhausen 
are  very  fine  goods  and  rival  those  of  the  English  and  French.  Under 
the  head  of  knit  goods,  the  gloves  are  taken  by  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States ;  of  the  hosiery  half  goes  to  the  United  States,  and  of 
the  knitted  underclothing  over  half  is  taken  by  Great  Britain.  Of 
the  lace  exported  over  a  third  goes  to  the  United  States  and  nearly  a 


GERMANY  EXPORTS  OF  COTTON  GOODS. 


17 


third  to  England,  while  of  the  embroidery  over  a  third  goes  to  Great 
Britain  and  nearly  a  third  to  the  United  States.  These  laces  are 
mainly  the  Plauen  etched  lace,  while  the  embroidery  is  mainly  of  a 
cheaper  grade  of  work  than  that  produced  at  St.  Gall.  Velvets  and 
plushes  exported  go  to  Russia,  United  States,  India,  etc.  Furniture 
and  upholstery  goods  find  their  best  market  in  Great  Britain.  Edg- 
ings, ribbons,  tapes,  etc.,  go  to  Great  Britain  and  the  United  Sjtates. 

The  foregoing  brief  classification  of  the  main  countries  buying 
Germany's  cotton  goods  shows  what  an  important  position  is  held  by 
the  American  trade.  The  United  States  takes  one-half  of  the  hosiery 
exported  from  Germany,  one-third  of  the  gloves  and  a  third  of  the 
lace,  besides  '  irge  quantities  of  other  cotton  manufactures,  especially 
those  p^odu.  .d  on  the  braiding  machine  and  the  ribbon  loom. 

LARGE  SHARE  IN  IMPORTATIONS  OF  UNITED  STATES. 

Ge.  lany  occupies  the  third  place  in  supplying  the  vast  amount  of 
cotton  textile  manufactures  bought  from  abroad  by  the  United  States 
every  year.  This  is  shown  by  the  following  table  giving  details  of 
American  purchases  of  the  leading  articles  from  the  four  countries 
which  together  supplied  three-fourths  of  the  $79,524,943  worth  of 
cotton  manufactures  imported  into  the  United  States  in  the  calendar 
year  1907 : 


Country. 

Cloth. 

Knit 
goods. 

Laces  and 
embroid- 
eries. 

United  Kingdom     — 

ni, 642, 816 

$117,313 
267,513 
8,384,830 
400,643 
38,878 

$7,256,131 
15,574,414 

5,341,332 
12,260,861 

1,010,625 

Switzerland                    .                    _  -  

692,323 
588,703 
1,133,301 
370,815 

Germany.--    _  .       

France  -__     .     _  _     „.  _      _    _  .     

other  countries            __  —   

Total      

14,427,958 

9,209,177 

41,443,363 

It  is  seen  from  this  that  in  the  main  Great  Britain  ships  to  Amer- 
ica cloth  and  laces,  Switzerland  only  embroideries,  and  France  mainly 
laces,  while  Germany  ships  largely  knit  goods  and  embroidered  laces. 

The  textile  exports  from  Germany  to  the  United  States  have  been 
steadily  increasing  for  some  years,  the  increase  being  mainly  repre- 
sented in  the  knit  goods  line,  which  more  than  makes  up  for  decreases 
in  some  other  lines.  The  following  figures  show  how  the  knitted 
goods  and  stitched  goods  have  been  increasingly  imported  into  the 
United  States  from  Germany  in  the  last  few  fiscal  years  ending 
June  80 : 


Description. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

Cloths: 

Plain      

Bleached,  dyed,  or  printed   - 

Clothing,  not  including  knit  goods, 

but  including  gloves           .   . 

Knit  goods    

$1,878 
603,467 

1,487,015 
5,472,059 
4,540,612 

$4,991 
532,613 

1,722,961 
5,449,903 
4,545,545 

$16,090 
533,287 

1,521,338 
5,504,843 
5,331,326 

$10,954 
532,196 

1,795,224 
6,383,371 
6,044,151 

$13,961 
563,639 

2,521,467 
7,830,986 
5,425,317 
243,553 
434,500 
1,179,108 

Laces,  embroideries,  etc  .  

Plushes,  etc    

Yarn  and  warp    

All  other  

Total  

354,121 
1,677,134 

419,016 
1,481,567 

375,499 
1,050,380 

555,783 
1,137,936 

14,136,286 

14,156,596 

14,332,763 

16,459,615 

18,212,531 

54552—08  2 


18 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


METHODS  CONDUCIVE  TO  SUCCESS. 

Germany's  vast  sales  of  cotton  manufactures  to  the  United  States 
are  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  German  manufacturers  ship  special 
lines  and  cater  to  the  demand  in  these  lines.  Thus  in  etched  laces 
there  are  at  Plauen  large  numbers  of  designers  continually  getting 
out  new  samples  and  the  manufacturers  are  willing  to  make  up  any 
size  orders  desired  and  pack  as  desired.  In  hosiery  there  are  new 
varieties  coming  out  all  the  time ;  likewise  in  gloves,  hat  braids,  pas- 
sementerie, etc.  The  German  designers  frequently  get  ideas  from 
the  United  States,  but  their  willingness  and  ability  to  make  small  lots 
of  a  large  number  of  special  designs  is  one  factor  that  has  had  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  their  American  sales. 

Germany  sends  out  large  numbers  of  commercial  travelers  and 
these  men  are  usually  good  linguists  and  well  versed  in  their  business. 
They  meet  the  buyer  personally,  offer  long  credits  in  such  countries 
as  Turkey  and  Egypt,  cater  to  the  buyer's  taste  as  to  marking,  pack- 
ing, etc.,  and  are  very  persistent  in  their  efforts  to  make  sales.  Other 
factors  that  have  largely  helped  German  sales  in  some  sections, 
especially  in  South  America,  have  been  the  presence  of  large  colonies 
of  German  emigrants.  The  increasing  merchant  fleet  of  Germany 
offers  a  ready  means  of  shipment  under  their  own  flag  to  any  part  of 
the  world,  and  the  Germans  are  more  and  more  following  the  prece- 
dent so  long  followed  by  England  of  the  banker  working  hand  in 
hand  with  the  merchant  in  developing  foreign  fields  and  establishing 
branch  banks  wherever  good  trade  prospects  are  to  be  found.  The 
latest  instance  of  this  is  the  chain  of  banks  now  being  established  by 
German  capital  in  the  leading  towns  of  the  Levant. 


GROWTH  OF  MANUFACTURES. 


NUMBER  AND  EXTENT  OF  THE  FACTORIES — PROFITS  REALIZED  PAY  AND 

PRIVILEGES  OF  EMPLOYEES. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  Germany  holds  third  place, 
being  only  exceeded  by  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States. 
In  the  exports  of  cotton  goods  Germany  is  only  exceeded  by  the  United 
Kingdom.  Kaw  cotton  is  the  largest  single  import  of  Germany,  and 
manufactured  cotton  the  largest  export.  In  1907,  the  imports  of  raw 
cotton  amounted  to  933,938,168  pounds,  valued  at  $113,391,530,  and 
the  exports  of  cotton  manufactures  amounted  to  151,916,167  pounds, 
valued  at  $97,002,136.  The  average  value  of  the  cotton  imported  was 
12.14  cents  per  pound,  and  the  average  value  of  the  manufactured 
product  was  63.84  cents  per  pound. 

Cotton  manufacturing  is  an  old  industry  in  Germany,  and  before 
the  introduction  of  machinery  there  were  well-known  centers  of  weav- 
ing, knitting,  braiding,  lace  making,  etc.,  in  Saxony  and  on  the  Rhine. 
The  German  people  were  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  the  introduction 
of  modern  machinery,  so  that  many  local  hand  industries  were  stifled 
by  the  flood  of  machine-made  goods  from  other  countries,  and  for  a 
long  time  Germany  obtained  the  bulk  of  its  cotton  goods  abroad, 
mainly  from  England.  The  unification  of  the  German  Empire  in 
1870  awakened  the  national  spirit,  and,  encouraged  by  a  firm  central 
Government,  there  began  an  agitation  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  at  home.  The  1,500,000  spindles  taken  over  with  Alsace- 
Lorraine  put  the  German  industry  ahead  of  the  French,  and  this  lead 
was  further  widened  by  the  increased  momentum  in  the  cotton-manu- 
facturing industry  about  1879.  Since  then  there  has  been  no  very 
remarkable  spurts,  but  a  gradual  and  steady  growth. 

INCREASED  PRODUCTION  BY  STATES. 

The  rate  of  growth  in  the  different  sections  has  not  been  the  same. 
Saxony  is  the  leading  German  State  in  cotton  manufacturing,  and  has 
nearly  trebled  its  spindles  in  the  last  twenty  years,  but  its  increase  has 
been  even  greater  in  special  lines  like  those  of  knitting  and  embroider- 
ing. The  State  that  has  shoAvn  the  most  remarkable  progress  is  West- 
phalia on  the  Rhine,  which  had  nearly  seven  times  as  many  spindles  in 
1907  as  it  had  in  1887.  That  part  of  Hanover  near  the  cotton  center 
in  northern  Westphalia  shows  a  large  comparative  increase,  and  so 
does  Wurttemberg,  both  of  these  having  more  than  doubled  their 
number  of  spindles.  Bavaria  and  the  Rhine  Province  also  show  sub- 
stantial increases ;  Alsace  a  very  slight  increase.    The  Alsatian  mills, 

19 


20 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


however,  have  advanced  further  than  the  others  in  the  direction  of 
fine  goods,  which  can  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  while  they  have  in- 
creased in  spindleage  10  per  cent  there  has  been  a  4  per  cent  decrease 
in  their  consumption  of  cotton. 

The  following  statistics,  furnished  by  the  Bremen  Cotton  Bourse, 
shows  the  number  of  spindles  and  the  amount  of  cotton  consumed  in 
the  several  kingdoms  and  provinces  of  Germany  in  1887  and  in  1905 : 


King-doms  and  provinces. 

1887. 

1905. 

Increase. 

Spindles. 

Cotton 
consumed. 

Spindles. 

Cotton 
consumed. 

Spindles. 

Cotton 
consump- 
tion. 

Saxony,  vig-o^e  spinning  

Bavaria  __     

Alsace-Lorraine  _   

Westphalia-  _   

Rhine  Province  __. 

Wurttemberg    

Baden  .   

Hanover      

All  others-     _    _  _    .  _ 

Total  

Number. 
541,122 
460,447 
924,312 
1,375,000 
285,828 
435,802 
354,548 
398,172 
105,000 
75,064 
99,500 

Bales. 
•  90,505 
102,200 
161,516 
250,000 
59,500 
165,. 580 
54,390 
58,562 
18,350 
21,500 
24,880 

Number. 
1,321,288 
628,025 
1,578,084 
1,511,586 
1,172,222 
1,051,362 
706,585 
468,784 
211,740 
109,320 
73,020 

Bales. 

225,000 
163,085 
300,000 
240,000 
255,300 
287,090 
115,000 
80,134 
48,425 
28,315 
19,020 

Per  cent. 

144.2 
36.4 
71.0 
9.9 

310.1 
58.5 
99.3 
17.7 

101.6 
45.6 

»26.7 

Per  cent. 
148.6 

59.6 

85.7 
«  4.0 
329.0 

73.4 
111.4 

36.8 
164.0 

31.7 
«30.0 

5,054,795 

1,006,983 

8,832,016 

1,761,369 

74.7 

74.9 

"  Decrease. 


The  German  Empire  is  composed  of  the  3  free  cities  of  Hamburg, 
Bremen,  and  Lubeck ;  of  the  4  kingdoms  of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Wurt- 
temberg,  and  Prussia  (the  latter  having  13  provinces)  ;  7  prince- 
doms, 6  grand  duchies,  5  duchies,  and  the  Imperial  Province  of 
Alsace-Lorraine.  Cotton  manufacturing  is  almost  exclusively  con- 
tained in  the  four  kingdoms  and  the  Imperial  Province.  East  of 
Saxony,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  towns  in  Silesia,  there  is  no  cot- 
ton manufacturing,  and  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  itself  there  is 
practically  none  except  in  the  two  western  provinces. 

THE  CENTERS  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

German  cotton  manufacturing  is  more  scattered  than  the  English, 
Swiss,  Italian,  or  East  Indian,  but  there  are  three  well-defined  cen- 
ters— the  Saxon,  the  Alsatian,  and  the  Westphalian  (see  explanatory 
map,  in  which  the  main  and  lesser  cotton-manufacturing  towns  are 
indicated  by  ringed  and  solid  dots,  respectively). 

The  first  section  lies  north  of  the  mountains  of  northern  Bohemia, 
and  consists  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  the  Upper  Franconia 
Province  of  Bavaria.  In  regard  to  general  cotton  manufacturing, 
including  not  only  spinning  and  weaving,  but  knitting,  embroider- 
ing, lace  making,  cotton-waste  manufacture,  artificial  flowers,  etc.,  it 
is  the  most  important  section  of  Germany.  It  contains  some  3,000.000 
spindles,  and  its  most  important  towns  are  Hof,  Baireuth,  and  Bam- 
berg, in  Upper  Franconia,  and  Chemnitz,  Mittweida,  Plauen,  Plane, 
Werdau,  Crimmitschau,  Zittau,  and  Zwickau,  in  Saxony.  The  sec- 
ond section  lies  in  the  extreme  southwest  corner  of  Germany,  between 
the  cotton-manufacturing  districts  of  East  France,  Switzerland,  and 
the  Austrian  Vorarlberg,  and  contains  some  4,000,000  spindles,  un- 
equally distributed  betAveen  Alsace,  Baden,  Wurttemberg,  and  Bava- 
rian Swabia.  The  main  cotton-manufacturing  towns  are  Mulhausen, 
Gebweiler,  and  Logelbach,  in  Alsace;  Augsburg  and  Kempten,  in 
Bavaria ;  Unterhausen  in  Wurttemberg ;  and  Lorrach  in  Baden, 


GEKMANY — GROWTH  OF  MANUFACTURES. 


21 


The  third  section  lies  in  the  northwest  corners  of  the  Prussian 
Rhine  and  Westphalian  provinces,  and  has  2,500,000  spindles.  The 
main  centers  are  Gronau,  Rheine,  Bocholt,  and  Epe,  in  Westphalia, 
and  Rheydt,  Munchen-Gladbach  and  Miilfort,  in  the  Rhine  Province. 

There  are  in  Germany  21  towns  having  more  than  100,000  spindles 
each,  and  these  21  towns  united  have  more  than  half  the  spindles  in 
Germany.  These  towns,  with  the  number  of  spindles  and  looms  in 
each,  are  as  follows: 


Towns. 

Spindles. 

Looms, 

Towns. 

Spindles. 

Looms. 

Mulhausen.-  __.  

520,300 
509,676 
494,234 
406,728 
345,113 
325,136 
804,000 
273,478 
210,132 
206,000 
197,220 

8,797 
9,630 
1,055 
5,175 
4,421 
3,169 

Chemnitz  .  _   

165,900 
162,000 
146,908 
142,560 
141,032 
125,000 
107,000 
106,808 
105,000 
100,446 

1,897 
1,761 
3,253 

Augsburg'.-  . 

Mittweida  .... 

Gronau  —  —   

Logelbach                  _  _  . 

Rheine.-  ._     

Crimmitschau  _.     _  _ 

Rheydt   . 

Baireuth                .  .... 

758 
2,186 

Hof  

Bamberg  .          .  __ 

Werdau  .  .   

Falkenau  ... 

Munchen-Gladbach  _ 

8,493 
2,027 

Kempten  .  ... 

2,489 

Gebweiler   ._  . 

Plaue...  ..      -           ..  .- 

Leipzig    

Mulfort    

Bocholt  . 

7,838 

The  weaving  industry  is  more  scattered,  and  there  are  more  than  50 
towns  with  more  than  1,000  looms  each. 


LEADING  MILL  TOWNS. 

Mulhausen  in  Alsace  is  the  most  important  town  in  Germany  .as 
regards  spindles  and  looms.  Nowhere  in  Germany  is  the  cotton  in- 
dustry better  organized  than  at  Mulhausen,  and  this  place  has  be- 
come noted  for  its  fine  muslins  and  print  goods.  One  of  the  main 
products  of  this  place  is  a  fine  cotton  print  known  locally  as  a  75/26 
print,  but  which  we  would  call  a  24/26  print — that  is,  with  24  warp 
and  26  filling  ends  per  J  inch.  These  are  made  31  to  32  inches  wide, 
and  some  of  them  are  exported  to  the  United  States.  Having  a  large 
local  trade,  Mulhausen  is  not  a  great  export  center,  though  it  ships 
some  fine  bleached  goods  and  fine  prints  to  the  neighboring  sections 
of  France  and  supplies  muslin  for  St.  Gall  embroiderers.  Mills  are 
scattered  throughout  the  country  around  Mulhausen.  These  mills 
do  not  build  the  ugly  tenements  as  seen  everywhere  in  Saxony,  but 
house  their  help  in  cottages  containing  each  one  or  two  families. 
The  operatives  enjoy  more  privacy  and  have  more  real  home  life  than 
?  is  seen  in  most  textile  sections  of  Germany.  Frequently  only  one  or 
two  of  the  family  work  in  the  mill,  while  the  others  tend  a  farm. 
Besides  Mulhausen,  the  other  two  large  textile  centers  of  Alsace  are 
Gebweiler  and  Logelbach,  though  there  are  a  score  or  more  of  smaller 
towns  of  more  or  less  importance  clustered  in  this  vicinity. 

Next  to  Mulhausen  the  largest  cotton  mill  town  is  Augsburg,  in 
the  province  of  Swabia,  in  Bavaria.  This  is  one  of  the  important 
towns  of  South  Germany.  It  has  about  95,000  people,  and  lies  at 
the  junction  of  the  Wertach  and  Lech  rivers,  38  miles  northwest  of 
Munich.  Contrary  to  the  custom  of  Mulhausen,  where  practically 
no  water  power  is  used,  the  Augsburg  mills  are  run  mainly  by  water 
power.  Canals  traverse  the  town  and  the  mills  are  situated  on 
these  canals  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  A  manufacturer  estimates 
that  Mulhausen  spins  average  No.  36s,  and  Augsburg  average  No.  26s. 

Gronau,  in  Westphalia,  has  only  six  mills  and  is  a  little  village  of 
only  8,500  inhabitants,  but  is  the  third  largest  cotton-mill  town  in 


22 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Germany.  This  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  largest  cotton- 
spinning  mill  is  located  at  this  point. 

One  of  the  densest  cotton-mill  centers  is  that  made  by  the  three 
close  neighbors,  Eheydt,  Munchen-Gladbach,  and  Mulfort,  in  the 
Ehine  Province.  These  three  towns,  of  40,000,  60,000,  and  8,000  in- 
habitants, respectively,  have  together  719,037  spinning  spindles, 
75,000  twister  spindles,  and  12,914  looms. 

SPECIALIZING  CENTERS  GENERAL  STATISTICS. 

Chemnitz  stands  twelfth  in  number  of  spindles,  but  is  one  of  the 
most  important  cotton  manufacturing  towns  in  Germany.  Its  im- 
portance is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  center  of  the  German  knit 
goods  manufacture.  Plauen  is  a  town  with  no  spinning  and  few 
looms,  but  is  also  an  important  cotton-manufacturing  center,  owing 
to  its  etched  lace  and  embroidery  work.  Very  little  machine-made 
lace  is  made  in  Germany,  but  the  largest  factory  of  this  kind  is  at 
Dresden.  Except  for  this,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
flowers,  Dresden  is  not  important  as  a  cotton  manufacturing  center. 
Werdau  and  Crimmitzschau,  in  western  Saxony,  are  important  as 
being  the  center  of  the  large  vigogne  yarn  spinning  business.  Bar- 
men, in  the  Rhine  Province,  is  noted  for  its  braided  work  and  for  its 
manufactures  on  the  ribbon  loom.  Crefeld  is  noted  for  its  velvet 
manufacture  and  velvet  dyeing;  Elberfeld  for  its  dyeing;  Munchen- 
Gladbach  for  its  colored  goods,  etc. 

Comparatively  few  of  the  German  mills  have  both  spindles  and 
looms,  and  in  the  big  centers  the  mills  specialize  on  either  spinning 
or  weaving,  as  is  the  custom  in  England.  The  more  remote  mills  in 
the  country  sections  of  Alsace  and  the  Rhine  usually  weave  their 
own  yarns. 

CONDITION  or  THE  INDUSTRY. 

The  following  table  shows  the  status  of  the  German  cotton  manu- 
facturing industry  at  the  end  of  1905,  giving  the  details  of  the  indus- 
try in  each  State : 


states. 

Spinning 
mills. 

Spinning 

and 
weaving 
mills. 

Weaving 
mills. 

Spindles. 

Twister 
spindles. 

Looms. 

Bales  of 
cotton 

con- 
sumed. 

Saxony"    

96 

7 

54 

1,968,580 

89,824 

39,236 

388,085 

Bavaria   _  

16 

13 

53 

1,577,632 

38,686 

31,092 

300,000 

Alsace   — 

16 

32 

43 

1,536,562 

16,550 

39,919 

240,000 

Westphalia   _      __  _ 

17 

18 

36 

1,456,636 

47,892 

25,729 

255,300 

Rhine  Province- 

42 

24 

121 

1,275,355 

110,454 

24,408 

287,090 

Wurttemberg  ___   

11 

17 

48 

761,440 

6,380 

19,352 

115,000 

Baden  

10 

13 

28 

526,804 

16,580 

16,744 

80,134 

Hanover- _    - 

1 

7 

18 

225,000 

17,400 

5,024 

48,425 

Silesia    --   

9 

5 

45 

133,930 

1,250 

16,540 

28,315 

All  others   - 

7 

6 

47 

268,270 

25,600 

13,155 

19,020 

Total   -   

-  225 

142 

493 

9,730,209 

370,616 

231,199 

1,761,369 

«  Includes  60  mills  on  vigogne  spinning  with  608,950  spindles. 


This  table  shows  that  Saxony  has  practically  no  mills  that  combine 
both  spinning  and  weaving,  while  Alsace  has  the  largest  number  of 
these.  By  dividing  9,730,209  spindles  by  367  spinning  mills  and 
231,199  looms  by  635  spinning  and  weaving  and  weaving  mills  it  is 
apparent  that  the  average  spinning  mill  in  Germany  has  26,500  spin- 
dles and  the  average  weaving  mill  364  looms.  Bavaria,  with  an  aver- 
age of  54,400  spindles  to  the  mill,  is  seen  to  have  mostly  large  mills, 


GERMANY  GROWTH  OF  MANUFACTURES.  23 


while  the  Rhine  Province,  with  only  an  average  of  19,300  spindles,  is 
seen  to  have  a  great  number  of  small  mills.  The  Bavarian  weaving 
mills  average  twice  the  size  of  weaving  mills  on  the  Rhine. 

The  foregoing  table  does  not  correspond  exactly  as  to  the  number 
of  spindles  with  that  previously  given  by  the  Bremen  Cotton  Bourse, 
but  was  made  up  at  the  end  of  the  year  1905  by  W.  Rieger,  of  Stutt- 
gart, and  this  is  'he  latest  complete  table  that  can  be  found  in  Ger- 
!  many  in  regard  U)  cotton-mill  statistics.    There  has  not  been  a  table 
1  made  up  by  anyone  since  1905,  though  the  president  of  the  German 
j  section  of  the  International  Federation  of  Master  Cotton  Spinners 
\  and  Manufacturers'  Association  estimates  that  on  March  1,  1908, 
there  were  in  Germany  9,592,855  spindles  in  operation,  and  455,946 
being  installed,  or  a  total  of  10,048,801.    He  furnished  me  with  a 
table  showing  that  the  9,191,940  spindles  estimated  by  him  as  being 
I  in  operation  on  August  31,  1907,  had  consumed  during  the  previous 
twelve  months  the  following  number  of  bales  of  cotton  from  the 
several  countries,  counting  2  round  bales  of  American  as  equal  to 
1  square  bale:    American,  1,135,538;  Indian,  380,367;  Egyptian, 
98,615;  all  other,  46,660;  total,  1,661,180. 

REPRESENTATIVE  MILLS  AND  THEIR  EMPLOYEES. 

Both  spindles  and  cotton  consumption  as  estimated  by  this  asso- 
ciation are  lower  than  the  detailed  figures  showing  the  number  of 
mills  and  the  spindles  of  each  that  were  compiled  by  Mr.  Rieger  in 
1905,  and  since  for  the  calendar  year  1907  there  were  used  in  Ger- 
many— as  shown  by  the  imports  less  the  reexports — 933,938,168 
pounds  of  cotton,  net  weight,  as  compared  with  812,050,576  pounds 
i  in  1905,  or  15  per  cent  more,  it  is  probable  that  the  estimated  figures 
of  the  association  are  too  small. 

The  German  department  of  the  interior  informed  me  that  they 
had  no  recent  figures,  and  that  those  of  W.  Rieger,  of  Stuttgart,  for 
1905  were  the  most  recent  that  they  knew  of. 

There  are  twelve  cotton  mills  in  Germany  with  over  100,000  spin- 
dles each,  and  two  of  these  have  each  over  200,000  spindles ;  five  mills 
have  more  than  2,000  looms  each,  and  35  have  more  than  1,000  looms 
each.    The  following  are  the  largest  German  cotton  mills: 


Company. 


I'o  wn . 


Province. 


Spindles. j  Looms. 


Gerritt  van  Delden  &  Co  .  

Leipsiger  Baumwoll-Spinnerei  

Baumwollspinnerei  am  Stadbach  

Vogtlandische  Baumwollspinnerei  

Kullman  &  Cie  

Chemnitzer  Aktien-Spinnerei  

Mittweida  Baumwollspinnerei  

Mechanische    Baumwoll-Spinnerei    u  n  d 
Weberei. 

Do   _ 

Georg  Lieberman  

E.J.  Claiss  NachiOlger  

C.  Kiimpers  Sohne  

Hartman  &  fils  

Ulrich  Gminder  

Herzof  Etablissements  


Gronau  

Leipzig  

Augsburg— 

Hof  

Mulhausen. 
Ohemnitz— 
Mittweida- 
Augsburg— 


Bamberg.-. 
Falkenau.-. 

Plaue  

Rheine  

Munster  

Reutligen... 
Logelbach-. 


Westphalia- 
Saxony  

Bavaria  

 do  

Alsace  

Saxony..^. 

 do  

Bavaria  


 do  

Saxony  

 do  

Westphalia  

Alsace  

Wurttemberg- 
Alsace  


220,000 
206,000 
148,316 
144,780 
143,000 
142,000 
140,000 
126,940 

125,000 
107,500 
105,000 
105,000 
51,200 
92,330 
85,000 


The  most  important  cotton  mill  in  Germany,  also  the  best  paying, 
as  shown  by  its  published  dividends,  is  the  Augsburg  Mechanische 
Baumwoll  Spinnerei  und  Weberei  at  Augsburg,  in  Bavaria.  This 
mill  has  126,940  spindles  running  on  average  No.  17s  English,  and 


24 


COTTOK  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


2,920  looms,  of  which  520  are  on  bleached  goods,  especially  printers, 
and  2,400  on  heavy  gray  goods.  It  employs  some  3,000  operatives, 
and  its  annual  pay  roll  amounts  to  about  $450,000.  Water  power  is 
used,  with  supplementary  steam  power.  It  uses  nearly  30,000  bales 
of  cotton  and  produces  some  12,000,000  pounds  of  yarn  and  30,000,000 
yards  of  cloth  yearly.  The  mill  was  founded  in  1837,  and  its  capital 
stock  is  now  3,600,000  marks  ($856,800),  while  its  per  cent  bonded 
indebtedness  is  500,000  marks  ($119,000).  The  m  11  has  a  large  re- 
serve fund,  and  a  special  sinking  fund,  and  has  200,000  marks 
($57,600)  reserved  for  the  pension  and  relief  of  employees.  The  divi- 
dends distributed  by  this  mill  to  its  stockholders  for  the  seven  years 
ended  with  1903  were,  in  consecutive  order,  20.4,  14.6,  16,  23.5,  17.5, 
23.5,  and  28  per  cent,  or  143.5  per  cent  in  the  seven  years. 

THE  LABOR  QUESTION. 

Heating  and  ventilation  in  this  mill  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
flues  built  in  the  wall,  the  air  going  up  the  flues  on  one  side  and  being 
drawn  down  to  the  basement  again  through  the  flues  on  the  other 
side.  Separate  dressing  rooms  with  clothes  lockers  are  provided  for 
the  men  and  women  on  each  floor.  There  is  also  provided  a  large 
hall  with  tables  and  chairs  where  the  operatives  can  eat  their 
lunches.  Coffee  and  milk  is  sold  in  the  morning,  hot  soup  at  noon, 
and  beer  at  4  o'clock.  A  demi-liter  (about  a  pint)  of  coffee  with 
milk  is  sold  at  7  pfennigs  (1.67  cents)  ;  a  portion  of  soup  with  vege- 
tables and,  occasionally,  with  meat,  is  sold  for  30  pfennigs  (7.14 
cents),  and  beer  sells  for  20  pfennigs  (4.8  cents)  a  liter  (1.05 
quarts).  This  is  almost  cost  price,  and  any  profit  over  expenses  goes 
to  the  workers'  pension  fund.  Operatives  are  lodged  partly  in  tene- 
ment houses  and  partly  in  cottages.  A  lodging  of  three  rooms  and  a 
kitchen  rents  for  100  to  140  marks  ($23.80  to  $33.32)  a  year.  Until 
1906  this  mill  ran  an  11-hour  day,  but  it  then  changed  to  10  hours. 

This  9.1  per  cent  decrease  in  time  was  allowed  by  a  7.85  per  cent 
decrease  in  production.  In  regard  to  wages  at  this  mill,  the  picker 
room  hands  and  the  carders  get  50  to  70  cents  a  day ;  on  two  900  self- 
actor  mules  the  spinner  averages  about  90  cents  a  day,  the  piecer  71 
cents,  and  each  of  the  two  creelers  35  cents  a  day.  Weavers,  on  an 
average,  run  three  looms  apiece,  and  make  about  80  cents  a  day ;  170 
of  the  looms  have  the  Northrop  attachment.  At  this  mill  a  man  is 
supposed  to  serve  a  two-years'  apprenticeship  before  he  can  do  as 
simple  work  as  that  of  running  three  looms  on  plain  goods.  He  has 
to  sign  a  two-years'  contract  to  this  effect.  He  first  works  as  extra 
assistant  to  a  weaver  for  six  months,  then  he  is  given  one  loom,  which 
is  run  under  the  supervision  of  the  regular  weaver,  who  receives 
a  certain  percentage  on  the  wages  made.  Then  he  is  given  two 
looms  under  the  same  conditions,  and  it  is  not  until  the  new  weaver 
has  been  working  for  two  years  that  he  is  considered  a  full-fledged 
weaver  and  allowed  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  labor  without  division. 
During  the  first  six  months  the  mill  usually  pays  the  apprentice  24 
cents  a  day. 

DOLTBTTUL    RESULT    OF    THE    APPRENTICESHIP    SYSTEM.  ( 

After  all  this  elaborate  apprenticeship  system  it  is  doubtful  if 
the  weaver  is  as  good  as  the  young  American  weaver  who  comes 
in  from  the  farm  and  in  a  few  months  at  most  is  getting  off 
the  required  production  along  with  the  others.    All  fines  and  pen- 


GEEMANY  GROWTH  OF  MANUFACTUEES. 


25 


alties  are  paid  to  a  sick  fund.  Besides  the  regular  Government 
insurance,  this  mill  has  special  insurance  funds  of  its  own  for  the 
relief  of  the  sick,  for  old  age  and  invalid  pensions,  for  the  relief  of 
widows,  etc. 

The  pension  fund  of  this  mill  provides  a  pension  after  20  years 
of  service  equal  to  30  per  cent  of  the  annual  wages ;  this  is  augmented 
2  per  cent  every  year  up  to  40  years  service  when  it  is  TO  per  cent. 
It  is  then  augmented  3  per  cent  per  year  up  to  50  years  when  the 
worker  is  entitled  to  a  pension  equal  to  his  regular  wages.  Except 
in  special  cases  a  worker  is  not  accorded  a  pension  until  he  has 
reached  the  age  of  50  years. 

By  means  of  the  two  years'  apprentice  contract  for  weavers,  and 
by  means  of  the  old  age  and  other  pensions  for  long  service,  this  mill 
offers  all  inducements  possible  to  insure  the  worker  remaining  at 
home.  The  German  operatives  do  not  roam  about  from  mill  to  mill 
as  is  so  much  the  custom  in  the  United  States,  and  therefore  the 
mills  are  enabled  to  keep  their  processes  more  secret,  and  little 
improvements  made  at  one  mill  are  not  so  soon  caught  up  and 
made  general  among  other  mills.  According  to  law,  the  mill  is 
supposed  to  pay  one-third  of  the  yearly  premiums  on  the  workers 
insurance,  the  workers  paying  the  other  two-thirds,  but  this 
mill  voluntarily  pays  two-thirds,  as  do  a  good  many  other  mills, 
only  leaving  one-third  to  be  paid  in  to  the  Government  by  the 
operatives. 

LARGEST  SPINNING  MILLS. 

While  the  foregoing  is  the  most  important  cotton  mill  in  Germany 
it  does  not  have  the  largest  number  of  spindles,  the  first  place  in  this 
respect  being  held  by  the  mill  of  Gerritt  yan  Delden  &  Co.,  with 
220,000  spindles,  located  near  the  Holland  border,  in  Westphalia,  at 
the  little  village  of  Gronau. 

The  mill  with  the  next  largest  number  of  spindles  is  the  Leip- 
ziger  Baumwoll-Spinnerei,  at  Leipzig-Lindenau,  in  northern  Saxony. 
This  mill  makes  a  specialty  of  combed  and  carded  Egyptian  yarns 
of  all  numbers,  from  10s  to  120s.  The  annual  consumption  is  some 
28,000  bales  of  cotton.  Tlie  capital  is  3,000,000  marks  ($714,000). 
Besides  regular  and  special  reserve  funds  there  is  a  fund  for  the  pen- 
sion and  relief  of  workmen  amounting  to  110,000  marks  ($2G,180). 
The  dividends  paid  by  this  mill  in  the  six  years  ended  with  1906, 
were  consecutively  12.5,  12.5,  12,5,  14,  16,  and  16  per  cent,  or  a  total 
of  97.5  per  cent.  Each  operative  commencing  work  at  this  mill  i-s 
given  a  copy  of  the  mill  rules  and  regulations  and  has  to  agree  to 
abide  by  these  by  signing  his  name  in  a  special  register.  About  a 
third  of  the  employees  belong  to  unions.  This  mill  employs  quite  a 
number  of  Poles  and  Bohemians.  At  the  mill  dining  hall  there  is 
sold  every  morning  before  work  commences  coffee,  milk,  and  cocoa, 
to  induce  the  workmen  to  refrain  from  taking  a  morning  dram  of 
spirits.  Bathing  at  least  once  every  two  weeks  is  obligatory  at  this 
mill.  On  the  envelope  containing  his  fortnight's  wages  each  work- 
man finds  a  card  indicating  the  day  and  hour  that  he  is  to  report  at 
the  bath  house.  Sick  insurance  calls  for  per  cent  of  the  wages,  but 
the  workman  pays  2^  per  cent  of  this,  and  the  factory  IJ  per  cent. 
Wliere  this  sum  does  not  cover  the  expenditures,  as  often  happens,  the 
factory  voluntarily  makes  up  the  deficit  without  calling  on  the 
workers. 


26 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUEOPE. 


A  PROSPEROUS  YEAR  PRIVATE  AND  STOCK  COMPANIES. 

In  regard  to  the  dividends  paid  by  the  two  foregoing  mills  it 
should  be  stated  that  these  are  not  to  be  taken  as  averages  for  German 
mills.  A  list  that  was  published  of  the  results  of  40  leading  German 
cotton  mills  shows  that  in  1906,  5  out  of  the  40  declared  over  20  per 
cent  dividends,  17  others  paid  over  10  per  cent,  15  paid  between  4 
and  10  per  cent,  and  two  lost  money.  This  was  an  exceptionally 
prosperous  year. 

The  bulk  of  the  German  cotton  mills  are  private  companies.  The 
most  recent  figures  show  that  of  the  spinning  mills  some  75  per  cent  jj 
are  private  companies,  also  66  per  cent  of  the  combined  spinning  and  i 
weaving  mills  and  98  per  cent  of  the  weaving  mills.  Bavaria,  which 
has  the  largest  mills,  also  has  the  largest  percentage  of  incorporated 
stock  companies — in  fact,  the  majority  of  the  Bavarian  spinning  mills 
are  stock  companies.  In  Westphalia,  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  Saxony 
nearly  all  mills  are  private  companies.  The  weaving  mills  in  Bavaria 
as  well  as  elsewhere  are  practically  all  private  companies. 

Of  the  231,199  looms  in  Germany  in  1905  it  was  estimated  that 
about  40  per  cent  were  on  colored  goods,  30  on  heavy  gray  goods, 
20  per  cent  on  calico  and  similar  goods,  and  10  per  cent  on  fine  goods. 
Goods  are  made  from  the  finest  yarns  most  largely  in  Alsace,  then  in 
Saxony,  and  then  Bavaria. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  SHORTER  WORKDAY. 

As  it  is  frequently  claimed  that  the  shorter  the  working  day  the 
more  intense  is  the  work,  it  is  interesting  to  see  what  result  was  ob- 
tained in  Bavarian  cotton  mills  by  the  reduction  on  January  1,  1906, 
of  the  working  hours  from  eleven  to  ten.  The  following  statistics 
have  been  published  showing  the  decreased  consumption  of  cotton  and 
the  decreased  production  at  seven  of  the  leading  mills  of  Augsburg: 


Per- 

Mills, 

1905. 

1906. 

centage 
decrease. 

Mechanische  Baumwoll-Spinnerei  unci  -Weberei: 

Cotton  consiamed  

28,447 

26, 792 

5.82 

127,000  spindles  on  No.  17,  yarn  produced  

 kilos.. 

5, 381, 000 

4,957,400 

7.85 

Baumwoll-Spinnerei  am  Stadtbach: 

Cotton  consumed  

 bales.. 

26, 213 

24, Oil 

8. 40 

147,000  spindles  on  No.  23i,  yarn  produced  

Haunstetter  Spinnerei  und  Weberei: 

 kilos.. 

5, 165, 000 

4, 866, 600 

6.78 

 bales.. 

4,773 

4,590 

3.84 

39,000  spindles  on  No.  31i,  yarn  produced  

 kilos.. 

927, 000 

871, 200 

6.01 

Mechanische  Baumwoll-Spinnerei  und  Weberei: 

Pieces  produced  

445, 670 

423. 960 

4.87 

3,000  looms,  cloth  produced  

 meters.. 

28,670,000 

27, 100, 000 

5.48 

Haunstetter  Spinnerei  und  Weberei: 

Pieces  produced  ,  

number.. 

186, 310 

175,440 

5.34, 

960  looms,  cloth  produced  

 meters. . 

11,537, 000 

10, 955,  000 

5.0T 

Mechanische  Weberei  am  Fichtelbach: 

Yarn  worked  

 kik'S. . 

1, 120, 000 

1,042,100 

6.95 

1,210  looms,  cloth  ])ro(hicc'(l  

 meters.. 

12, 362, 400 

11, 718, 200 

5. 22 

Baumwoll-Weberei  Zcischlingsweiler: 

Yarn  worked  

 kilos. . 

1,087,617 

1,007,400 

7.37 

970  looms,  pieces  produced  

183, 000 

175,870 

3.88 

This  shows  that  in  these  mills  a  decrease  of  the  working  hours  from 
11  to  10  or  9.09  per  cent  resulted  in  a  decrease  in  the  consumption 
of  cotton  of  6.02  per  cent,  a  decrease  in  the  production  of  yarn  of 
6.54  per  cent,  and  a  decrease  in  the  production  of  cloth  of  4.92  per 
cent. 


COTTON  MILLS. 


C(.ST  OF   BUILDING   A   COTTON   MILL  VARIOUS   MATTERS   INCIDENTAL  TO 

FACTORY  MANAGEMENT. 

If  the  total  number  of  spindles  in  Germany  be  divided  by  the  total 
number  of  mills  containing  spindles,  the  average  number  of  spindles 
per  mill  is  26,500.  Data  are  furnished  herewith  in  regard  to  the  cost 
of  building  and  operating  a  mill  of  30,000  spindles.  A  concern  at 
Mulhausen  in  Alsace  has  a  capital  of  18,000,000  francs  ($3,474,000), 
and  is  the  only  firm  in  Germany  that  makes  a  complete  line  of  cotton- 
mill  machinery  and  that  contracts  to  build  and  equip  cotton  mills 
ready  for  operation.  This  company  is  therefore  the  best  authority 
on  the  cost  of  such  mills.   Its  president  furnishes  the  following  data : 

For  a  cotton  mill  of  30,000  spindles  to  spin  warp  yarns  of  say  27/29 
French  counts  (equal  to  32/34  English  counts),  and  filling  yarns  of 
say  36/38  French  counts  (equal  to  42/45  English  counts),  the  cost 
of  construction,  without  the  ground  itself,  will  range  between  50  and 
CO  marks  ($11.90  to  $14.28)  per  spindle,  complete.  The  cost  >will 
vary  between  these  two  extremes  according  to  the  outlay  considered 
necessary  for  the  house  of  the  manager,  the  storehouses,  and  the 
accessories.  Taking  the  average  of  55  marks  ($13.09)  per  spindle 
this  amount  will  ordinarily  be  made  up  as  follows : 


Description. 

Cost. 

Spinning  machinery  proper   _   .  —  _  —  —  —  _ 

Marks. 
25 
5 
9 
12 
4 

Dollars. 
5.95 
1.19 
2.142 
2.856 
.952 

Spinning-  accessories,  cans,  belting,  etc          .               _-     -   . 

Steam  engine,  lighting  and  heating  equipment   -  _    

Building  and  sheds  .                                        _   —  

Miscellaneous  expenses   

Total    

55 

13.09 

For  a  weaving  mill  of  500  looms  the  expense  will  be  about  1,000 
marks  (mark=23.8  cents)  per  loom,  viz: 


Description. 

Cost. 

Looms-  

Marks. 
400 
50 
250 
200 
100 

Dollars. 
95.20 
11.90 
59.50 
47.60 
23.80 

Preparatory  and  sizing  machinery,  etc   — 

Steam  plant,  lighting  and  heating  

Building     . 

Miscellaneous  expenses        

Total  .     __  

1,000 

238.00 

'  In  the  foregoing  figures  the  cost  of  the  land  is  omitted  as  being  too 
variable  a  factor  to  average,  but  for  the  ordinary  German  cotton  mill 
located  just  outside  of  a  town  this  might  be  estimated  at  5  marks  a 
square  meter  ($1.19  per  10.76  square  feet). 

27 


ik! 


28  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EtJROPE. 

NUMBER  AND  APPORTIONMENT  OF  OPERATIVES.  Vji 

The  wages  paid  in  cotton  mills  in  different  parts  of  Germany  vary.j 
as  also  does  the  number  of  operatives  required  for  a  given  number  oi\ 
machines  or  for  a  given  production.  For  mills  on  similar  goods  and| 
similarly  located  wages  are  lowest  in  Saxony  and  highest  in  Rhine. 
The  mills  around  Augsburg  seem  to  afford  a  fair  average  for  the  Ger- 
man industry  as  a  whole.  For  a  30,000  spindle  mill  there  is  required 
under  average  conditions  the  following  workers : 

For  general  oversight:  One  obermeister  (superintendent)  ;  one 
vorarbeiter  (foreman)  in  the  opening  and  mixing  room;  one  meister 
and  one  untermeister  (boss  grader  and  second  hand)  in  the  card  room; 
one  spinnmeister  (boss  spinner)  for  every  10,000  to  15,000  mule 
spindles,  and  one  throstlemeister  (boss  spinner)  for  every  10,000  tc 
15,000  ring  spindles. 

Mixing  room:  One  man  for  every  6  bales  daily,  and  one  girl  for 
every  12  bales  daily,  to  pick  and  bundle  the  bagging  and  do  similar 
light  work. 

Picker  room :  One  man  to  every  two  openers,  one  man  to  every 
two  pickers  or  lappers,  one  man  for  the  waste  machine,  and  one  lap 
carrier  for  every  12  bales  daily. 

Cards :  One  card  grinder  to  every  24  cards,  one  operative  to  every 
8  cards,  and  one  can  girl  to  every  16  cards,  the  cards  making  165 
pounds  in  ten  hours. 

Draw  frames:  One  girl  to  16  deliveries  for  fine  slivers,  to  make 
No.  30s  and  above,  and  one  girl  and  an  assistant  for  coarse  numbers. 

Fly  frames :  One  operative  to  every  80  slubber  spindles ;  one  opera- 
tive to  120  intermediate  spindles  on  hank  rove  under  No.  1.4 — above 
this  number  there  is  required  one  helper  to  every  two  frames;  one 
operative  to  every  144  spindle  fine  frame  under  3J  hank  roving 
with  the  addition  of  one  helper  for  every  two  frames  making  over 
No.  4  hank  roving. 

Mule  spinning:  For  every  two  mules  containing  1,800  to  2,000 
spindles  one  spinner,  two  piecers,  and  two  creelers,  if  on  numbers 
under  20s;  for  finer  numbers  for  a  similar  number  of  spindles  one 
spinner,  one  piecer,  and  one  to  two  creelers. 

Ring  spinning:  One  girl  spinner  to  every  300  to  400  spindle  warp 
frame  on  No.  20s;  one  girl  for  every  380  spindle  frame  on  filling,! 
with  one  young  assistant  for  every  two  frames;  for  every  two  spin-, 
ning  frames  one  girl  doffer. 

There  ^  is  required  one  engineer  and  one  assistant  in  the  engine 
room,  one  dynamo  tender  and  one  transmission  tender  and  machinist, 
one  fireman  and  one  coal  passer  for  every  200  horsepower,  one  heac 
machinist  and  two  assistants,  one  wood  turner  and  carpenter,  one 
gate  keeper,  etc. 

The  operatives  per  1,000  spindles  average  between  6  and  8. 


FUEL  USED  BY  GERMAN  COTTON  MILLS. 

The  German  cotton  mills  are  mainly  steam  plants.  Some  of  the 
mills  in  Bavaria  and  Baden,  near  Switzerland,  including  most  o' 
the  mills  at  Augsburg,  use  water  power,  and  a  few  in  upper  Fran 
conia  are  operated  either  wholly  or  in  part  by  water  power,  but  witli 
these  exceptions  the  bulk  of  the  mills  are  operated  by  steam.  There 
are  97  square  miles  of  lakes  in  the  29,000  square  miles  of  Bavaria 


GERMANY  COTTON  MILLS.  29 

id  the  length  of  the  rivers  includecj  in  this  Kingdom  is  44,285  miles. 

I  the  highlands  of  Bavaria  there  is  abundant  water  power  available., 
jtimated  at  over  300,000  horsepower,  but  this  is  as  yet  little  utilized., 

is  expected  that  the  State  will  acquire  the  legal  right  to  ex- 
ropriate  vested  rights  in  the  more  important  rivers  and  streams  and 
ill  develop  the  water  power  for  commercial  purposes.  Electricity 
beginning  to  be  largely  used  in  mills;  at  Plauen,  for  instance., 
-rery  lace  factory  in  the  town  is  operated  by  current  obtained  from 
16  city  power  house. 

Germany  produces  a  considerable  part  of  the  fuel  that  it  consumes 
id  also  exports  about  10  per  cent  of  its  production  to  neighboring 
mntries.  Lignite  is  largely  used  in  the  form  of  briquettes. 
Germany  produces  about  15  per  cent  of  the  coal  output  of  the 
orld,  and  is  the  largest  single  producer  after  the  United  States  and 
16  United  Kingdom.  The  German  production  in  1907  was  as  fol- 
iws,  in  metric  tons  (2,204.6  pounds)  :  Stone  coal,  143,222,886;  brown 
oal,  62,319,802;  coke,  21,938,038;  brown  coal  briquettes,  12,890,461; 
iack  coal  briquettes  (pressed  lumps),  3,524,017;  total,  243,895,204. 
The  main  coal  basins  for  Germany  ar«  found  at  Euhr  in  the  Khine 
rovince,  in  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia,  and  at  Bonn  in  the  Rhine 
rovince.  These  three  centers  produce  55,  25,  and  12  per  cent,  respec- 
vely,  of  the  total ;  the  remainder  coming  from  Zwickau-Oelsnitz  in 
axony,  Zweibrucken  in  the  Palatinate,  Munich,  Dresden,  and  Bay- 

3Uth. 

The  lignite  is  produced  mainly  at  Halle,  in  the  province  of  Saxony, 
nd  at  Bonn,  in  the  Rhine  province,  these  two  places  producing  66 
ad  14  per  cent,  respectively,  of  the  total,  the  remainder  being  ob- 
lined  from  Saxe-Altenburg,  in  Anhalt;  Leipzig  and  Dresden,  in 
axony ;  Braunschweig,  Silesia,  Magdeburg,  and  Hesse. 

MILLS  LOCATED  NEAR  FUEL  SUPPLY  WHERE  COTTON  IS  OBTAINED. 

The  old  mills  were  located  for  water  power,  while  the  new  are 
Dcated  with  regard  to  the  nearness  of  a  fuel  supply  and  for  trans- 
ortation  facilities.    The  coal  mines  of  the  Rhine  region  have  had 

great  deal  to  do  with  the  increase  of  cotton  manufacturing  in  the 

hine  and 'Westphalian  provinces,  and  similarly  the  coal  mines  in 
axony  and  Silesia  have  been  of  great  advantage  to  the  cotton  and 
ther  manufacturing  industries  of  those  sections. 

Cotton  is  obtained  by  the  German  cotton  mills  through  cotton 
rokers  at  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  with  smaller  amounts  through  the 
orts  of  the  Low  Countries  and  Dantzig.  Bremen  is  by  far  the  largest 
otton  import  center  on  the  Continent,  and  ships  cotton  not  only  to 

II  parts  of  Germany  and  to  Austria  and  Switzerland,  but  as  far  in- 
i  md  as  Moscow  and  northern  Italy.   It  seems  strange  that  any  cotton 

hould  be  imported  by  Italian  mills  from  Germany,  but  it  is  due 
0  the  fact  that  Bremen  is  the  largest  import  center,  and  always  has 
otton  on  hand  ready  for  shipment  as  desired,  and  that  there  are  many 
Tokers  from  which  to  order,  while  there  are  few  cotton  brokers  at 
xenoa,  and  in  the  entries  at  that  port  there  is  frequently  serious  delay, 
wing  to  the  congestion  of  the  insufficient  railway  accommodations 
nland.  During  1907  nearly  250,000  bales  of  cotton,  valued  at  over 
14,000,000,  were  supplied  by  German  brokers  to  neighboring  natious. 
.^here  are  large  cotton  storage  warehouses  at  Bremen  and  the  storage 
ate  is  low,  so  that  many  mills  in  different  parts  of  Germany  keep 
heir  purchases  stored  here  and  have  monthly  shipments  made  a^^ 


30 


COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUEOPE. 


needed,  while  the  smaller  mills  buy  in  weekly  or  monthly  lots  froir| 
the  brokers  as  desired.  The  brokerage  charged  is  one-half  of  1  per 
cent,  paid  in  equal  proportions  by  the  buyer  and  seller.  Americar 
cotton  is  imported  on  c.  i.  f.  terms,  6  per  cent,  sixty  days  with  1  pei 
cent  weight  allowance.  Cotton  is  sold  at  Bremen  for  spot  or  futun 
delivery,  but  there  is  no  dealing  in  "  futures  "  at  Bremen  and  but  littlt 
at  Hamburg. 

INLAND  AND  EXPORT  FREIOHT  RATES. 

The  inland  freight  rates  on  cotton  from  Bremen  and  Bremerhaver 
to  the  main  cotton  manufacturing  centers  of  Germany  and  Austri 
are  as  follows  per  100  pounds : 


From — 

Prom- 

Bremen. 

Bremer- 
haven. 

To— 

Bremen. 

Bremer- 
haven. 

To— 

Cents. 
8.64 
16.52 
20.41 

Cents. 
10.04 
18.58 
21.81 

Munchen-Gladbach . 

Chemnitz. 

Mulhausen. 

Cents. 
22.79 
26.82 
36.93 

Cents. 
24.08 
27.97 
39.10 

Augsburg-. 

Prague. 

Vienna. 

The  following  are  the  rates  now  (April,  1908)  being  j^aid  by  Ger 
man  cotton  piece-goods  exporters  to  the  various  countries  of  the  worlc 
on  piece  goods  exported  from  Bremen : 


Destination  and  basis. 


New  York  «  per  35.310  cubic  feet-_ 

Rio  de  Janeiro  do  

Montevideo  do  

Buenos  Aires  do  

Valparaiso  do  

Mollendo  do  

Yokohama  do  

Hongkong  do  

Shanghai  do  

Singapore  do  

Rangoon  per  40  cubic  feet__ 

Calcutta  do  

Bombay  do  

Alexandria  per  metric  ton.. 

Smyrna  do  

Constantinople  do  

Athens  ^  do  

Beirut  do  

Naples  per  33.316  cubic  feet.. 


Ratc. 


$5.00 
13.09 
9.52 
9.52 
14.28 
14.28 
10.115 
10.115 
10.71 
8.925 
8.52 
4.866 
4.866 
9.733 
9.733 
9.733 
9.733 
10.95 
3.57 


Deviation  from  rate. 


10  per  cent  rebate. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

5  per  cent  rebate. 
Do. 
Do. 

Plus  5  per  cent  primage. 
Do. 
Do. 

Plus  10  ])er  cent  primage. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


"These  rates  are  by  mail  steamers;  by  fast  steamers  the  rates  are  $7.50. 
TEXTILE  PRINTING  PRICES. 

Mulhausen,  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  is  noted  for  its  fine  prints.  I  oh 
tained  while  there  the  prices  charged  by  three  separate  establishmentf 
for  printing.   These  were  as  follows,  per  meter  (1.09  yards)  : 


Description. 


Cotton: 

32-inch  goods,  1  and  2  rollers  

56-inch  goods,  1  and  2  rollers  

32-inch  goods,  1  and  2  rollers,  using  heavy  colors 

with  ground   — 

Mousseline  de  laine,  30-inch: 

'  1  roller  

1  roller,  with  heavy  colors  and  ground--  

2  to  8  rollers  

9  to  12  rollers  


Establishment 
A. 


Cents. 


3.11 
5.60 


3.32 


3.85 
4.35 

4.97  to  8.45 
9.45  to  11.19 


Establishment 
B. 


Cents. 
3.97  to  4.40 
5.97 

5.52  to  0.22 

4.72 
5.97 

5.47  to  11.90 
10.45  to  11.94 


Establishmen 
O. 


Cents. 


.73  to  6.2 
.72  to  10.4 
.95  to  11.4 


GERMANY  COTTON  MILLS. 


31 


The  rollers  are  furnished  by  the  printer,  the  engraving  design  by 
the  merchant  with  his  cloth.  The  charges  include  the  necessary 
bleaching  before  printing  and  the  finishing  and  folding  up  after 
printing.   Damaged  pieces  are  charged  half  price. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  very  often  German  cotton  piece  goods, 
isay  prints,  can  be  bought  cheaper  in  foreign  countries  than  at  the 
price  they  are  being  retailed  for  in  Germany. 

RULES  REGULATING  WORK  IN  A  GERMAN  COTTON  MILL. 

The  rules  that  are  posted  up  in  every  German  factory,  according 
■to  the  requirements  of  the  law,  throw  a  good  deal  of  light  on  the 
methods  of  work  in  the  different  sections.  The  following  are  the 
rules  of  one  big  German  cotton  mill,  and  are  taken  from  a  recent 
IDublication  by  a  French  authority,  who  wrote  a  report  on  German 
factories,  but  are  similar  to  rules  I  have  seen  in  factories  in  Saxony 
and  Westphalia : 

1.  Every  worker  on  liis  adoiission  to  the  factory  receives  a  coi)y  of  these 
regulations  and  must  sign  a  declaration  showing  that  he  has  received  this  copy 
and  accepts  the  conditions  as  a  contract  of  worlv  according  to  the  provisions  of 
the  law. 

2.  Anyone  desiring  to  obtain  worlv  at  the  factory  must  first  show  a  quittance 
from  the  invalidity  insurance  fund  and  the  certificate  of  dismissal  from  the 
last  establishment  at  which  lie  worked  (minors  must  show  their  record  book). 
He  must  be  examined  by  a  doctor  and  the  admission  is  temporary  only  for 
two  weeks.  At  tlie  expiration  of  two  weeks  and  on  a  certificate  from  the  doctor 
showing  his  state  of  health  he  may  then  be  accepted  by  the  management,  and  is 
enrolled  as  a  member  of  the  sick  fund.  In  the  case  of  apprentices  their  fathers 
or  guardians  must  sign  the  contract. 

HOURS  OF  WORK — CONDUCT  OF  EMPLOYEES. 

3.  The  regular  liours  of  work  are  from  (>  in  the  morning  to  mi(hhiy  and  from 
jl  o'clock  to  (>  in  the  evening;  on  Saturdays  and  the  eves  of  holidays  to  5  in  the 
evening.  Women  who  liave  households  to  manage  may  on  demand  quit  at 
11.30  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  hours  of  work  and  the  rests  allowed  minors 
are  shown  by  paragraphs  liung  on  the  walls  of  the  workroom.  Adults  are  not 
entitled  to  these  rests.  The  connuencement  and  the  end  of  work  hours  are 
announced  by  signal. 

4.  On  Sundays  and  legal  holidays  the  factory  does  not  run.  Adult  employees 
may  be  held  to  i)erform,  after  the  cessation  of  work  and  on  Sundays  and  holi- 
days, such  special  work  as  is  authorized  by  law. 

5.  It  is  forbidden  to  enter  or  leave  the  factory  by  otlier  than  tlie  regular 
entrances.  The  gates  are  opened  fifteen  minutes  before  the  commencement  of 
work.  It  is  forl)idden  for  women  and  children  to  commence  any  work  before 
starting  time.  Those  tardy  and  those  leaving  before  the  stoi)page  of  tlie  ma- 
chines are  punished  by  fine.  Leaving  during  the  hours  of  work  is  not  allowed 
except  by  the  authorization  of  the  superintendent  and  this  authorization  carried 
to  the  gate  keeper. 

6.  Obedience  is  due  to  superiors  and  the  work  prescribed  must  be  executed 
with  good  will.  It  is  forbidden  to  make  a  noise  in  the  halls  or  to  assault  a 
fellow  worker.  When  a  worker  presents  himself  at  the  mill  in  an  intoxicated 
condition  he  loses  his  work  and  salary  for  that  day;  on  a  repetition  of  the 
offense  he  is  discharged.  No  worker  has  the  right  to  enter  rooms  other  than 
ithat  in  which  he  works.  During  the  midday  rest  and  after  work  no  worker 
has  the  right,  unless  by  special  authorization,  to  remain  in  the  factory. 
Machines  and  appliances  used  by  a  workman  must  be  kept  in  good  order. 
Modifications  or  repairs  must  only  be  made  by  the  foremen  or  on  their  direct 
orders.    It  is  forbidden  to  introduce  strangers  into  the  factory. 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  ACCIDENTS — CARE  OF  PROPERTY. 

7.  The  rules  shown  on  the  wall  as  to  precautions  to  be  taken  to  avoid  acci- 
dent must  be  followed  strictly  for  the  interest  of  the  worker.  It  is  strictly 
forbidden  to  clean  machinery  or  shafting  while  in  motion.    Each  worker  is 


32 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


lu'ld  to  certify  by  bis  sii^iuiture  that  be  will  take  notice  of  tbese  precautions! 
to  avoid  accidents. 

S.  Workers  must  take  care  of  all  material  delivered  to  tbem  and  musi 
.uatber  up  and  deposit  waste  made  in  tbe  places  provided.  It  is  forbidden  t( 
take  away  any  object,  bowever  valueless,  waste  or  anytbing  else,  and  workers 
must  allow  tbemselves  to  be  examined  if  sucb  is  found  to  occur.  Offenses  wil 
be  submitted  to  tbe  courts.  To  tbrow  cotton,  waste,  etc.,  in  tbe  cabinets  oi 
on  tbe  street  will  be  considered  as  damage  witbin  tbe  meaning  of  tbe  law  oJ 
work. 

9.  Water-closets  and  tbeir  surroundings  must  be  left  in  good  order.  Clotbes 
and  baskets  brougbt  to  tbe  factory  must  be  kept  in  tbeir  proper  places.  It  ii 
forbidden  to  smoke  in  tbe  factory  or  tbe  courtyards,  and  it  is  forbidden  tc 
carry  matcbes  in  tbe  pockets  witbin  tbe  factory.  Pipes,  lanterns,  and  matcbes 
must  be  left  witb  tbe  gate  keeper,  wbo  will  take  care  of  tbem.  Everyone  must 
observe  tbese  precautions  carefully  to  avoid  danger  of  fire,  and  any  disregard 
of  tbese  rules  entails  tbe  immediate  exclusion  of  tbe  offender  witbout  appeal, 

10.  Food  and  drink  must  not  be  introduced  into  tbe  workrooms  except  at 
tbe  prescribed  bours — tbat  is,  from  8  to  8.30  o'clock  in  tbe  morning  and  from 
3.30  to  4  o'clock  in  tbe  afternoon.  It  is  absolutely  forbidden  to  bring  brandy 
into  tbe  factory.  Any  traffic  or  collecting,  etc.,  is  absolutely  forbidden,  and 
after  one  warning  results  in  dismissal. 

PAYMENT  OF  WAGES  AND  FINES — QUIT  NOTICES. 

11.  Wages  paid  are  determined  according  to  tbe  tariffs  sbown  on  tbe  walls. 
Weavers  are  paid  per  cut.  Tbe  fines  levied  for  deterioration  of  mercbandise 
or  damage  to  otber  objects  tbrougli  tbe  negligence  or  by  tbe  fault  of  tiie 
worker  are  deducted  from  tbeir  pay  and  given  to  tbe  sick  fund. 

12.  Accounts  are  made  up  every  fortnight  on  Saturday  evening  and  are  paid 
tbe  next  Saturday,  witb  tbe  deductions  autborized  by  law.  Tbe  worker  must 
verify  bis  wages  and  make  any  claim  innnediately,  for  Inter  claims  will  not  be 
allowed,  so  as  to  avoid  tbe  mixing  of  strangers  into  matters  concerning  the 
wages  of  employees. 

13.  In  case  the  factory  is  not  able  to  run  and  the  mnnagement  has  thereby 
to  refuse  work  to  tbe  operative,  the  factory  can  not  be  held  liable  for  damages, 
such  stoppage  being  due  to  accident  to  the  motors  or  similar  cause.  As  far 
as  the  law  permits  such  time  will  be  made  up  by  extra  work  overtime. 

14.  The  operative  can  not  claim  payment  for  hours  that  he  did  not  work, 
even  though  it  was  not  due  to  his  fault. 

15.  Two  weeks'  notice  of  ternunation  of  contract  .may  be  given  by  either, 
employer  or  employee,  but  such  notice  must  be  given  on  Saturday,  when  the 
accounts  are  made  up,  nt  the  office  between  4  and  5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 
The  n.Uice  will  be  better  if  signed  by  a  superior  and  given  to  the  worker  at 
tbe  li<  •  .  named,  or  given  by  the  worker  to  the  office,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Quitting  work  at  the  factory  without  due  notice  or  valid  excuse  is  held  to  be 
a  breach  of  contract,  and  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  work  there  will  be 
retained  a  week's  wages  to  be  turned  over  to  the  sick  fund,  and  a  civil  action 
may  also  be  instituted  in  the  courts  if  considered  advisable.  Besides  the 
provisions  of  the  law  of  work,  disregard  of  the  regulations  for  avoiding  accidents 
entails  immediate  discharge  without  notice. 

PUNISHMENT    FOR    OFFENSES  EMPLOYEES'    PENSION  FUND. 

16.  Offenses  committed  under  the  present  regulations  or  under  the  provisions 
of  the  law  of  work  may  be  punished  by  fines.  Separate  fines  can  not  exceed 
half  a  day's  wages,  except  that  acts  of  violence  against  his  inferiors  or  fellow- 
workmen,  rudeness  toward  his  superiors,  grave  impropriety,  and  offenses  against 
order  may  l)e  punished  by  a  fine  equal  to  a  day's  wages.  Usually  for  the  less 
serious  cases  the  oft'ender  is  first  only  warned,  on  repetition  he  is  fined.  The 
obligation  to  pay  fines  levied  is  not  annulled  by  the  fact  of  giving  notice. 
All  fines  deducted  from  the  wages  go  to  the  sick  fund. 

17.  All  fines  and  deductions  are  fixed  by  the  foreman  of  each  room  and 
notification  given  to  the  worker.  He  has  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  superin- 
tendent, who  finally  decides. 

IS.  Any  worker  can  be  admitted  to  the  pension  fund  founded  for  the  benefit 
of  the .  operatives  after  five  years  of  service  if  there  is  no  opposition  to  his 
admission.  The  premiums  for  this  fund  are  paid  by  the  factory  at  their  own 
cost  without  any  deduction  from  wages.    Payments  may  be  made  to  a  savings 


GERMANY  COTTON  MILLS. 


33 


II  fund,  which  pays  4^  per  cent  interest.  Dei)Osits  may  l^e  made  of  from  1  to 
30  marl^s  (23.8  cents  to  $7.14)  a  week.  When  an  account  reaches  over  1,000 
*marks  ($238)  the  rate  of  interest  is  decreased  or  the  total  deposit  is  returned. 
tl(  19.  These  regulations,  drawn  so  as  to  conform  to  the  law,  after  having  been 
If  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  regular  workers'  committee  of  the  sick  fund, 
il  were  submitted  to  the  higher  authorities,  approved  by  them,  and  will  be  enforced 
01)  strictly. 

GOVERNMENT  REGULATIONS. 

e^  In  Germany  there  is  no  law  limiting  the  hours  that  may  be  worked 
''^by  men,  but  there  are  numerous  detailed  provisions  in  regard  to  the 

smployment  of  women  or  children,  the  conditions  of  employment, 
ij  holidays,  payment  of  wages  and  fines,  protection  from  accidents,  etc. 
niThe  general  law  was  passed  July  26,  1900,  and  stricter  provisions 

idded  December  If),  1907.  The  following  extracts  from  the  law  are 
I  reproduced  to  shoAv  under  what  legal  conditions  German  cotton  mills 
i  )pcrate: 

'     Contracts  may  be  freely  made  between  emi)loyers  and  employees,  and  these 
contracts  ni'c  legal  unless  they  violate  some  i)r()vision  of  the  law.    The  opera- 
ive  is  not  c<)nii)elleil  to  woi'k  on  Sundays  or  holidays,  and  factories  are  for- 
)idden  to  run  on  such  days.    Holidays  are  fixed  by  the  authorities  of  each 
k  )rovince  according  to  the  local  customs,  but  the  Government  prescribes  at  least 
a  'orty-eight  hours  each  for  Christmas,  Passover,  and  Pentecost.    New  Year's 
,  )ay,  Easter  Monday,  xVscension  Day,  Whit  Monday,  and  Itepentance  Day  (mid- 
tie  of  November),  are  usually  given,  and  in  some  sections  many  more,  includ- 
i  ng  dates  connected  with  the  birth  and  the  accession  of  the  ruler.  Oi)eratives 
>  nay  be  employed  on  Sundays  and  holidays  at  the  works  where  specially  per- 
il iiitted  by  the  authorities.    These  special  cases  include  urgent  work  in  the 
li  )ublic  interests,  to  take  inventories  prescribed  by  law,  for  repair  and  mainte- 
lance  work  difficult  to  effect  during  the  week,  for  work  impossible  to  effect 
luring  the  week  and  the  nonexecution  of  which  would  injure  the  goods,  and  for 
:  he  inspection  of  the  work  done  during  the  week. 

employees'  record  books  and  certificates. 

Each  worker  under  age  must  have  a  record  book,  in  which  is  given  his  name, 
late  and  place  of  birtli,  the  name  and  residence  of  his  legal  representative, 
md  the  signature  of  the  worker.  This  book  is  signed  and  stamped  by  the 
luthorities  and  is  retained  by  the  employer  until  the  expiration  of  the  contract 
nade  by  the  worker,  when  it  must  be  returned  to  him.  When  the  worker 
»nters  the  factory  the  employer  must  write  in  ink  the  date  and  the  nature  of 
he  employment,  and  when  the  employee  quits  the  employer  must  write  the  date; 
ilso  any  change  of  class  of  work  in  the  meantime  and  tlie  last  class  of  work 
)erformed.  Observations  advantageous  or  disadvantageous  to  the  worker  are 
'orbiddden. 

On  his  departure  a  worker  may  demand  a  certificate  relative  to  the  dura- 
ion  and  nature  of  his  work.  If  the  worker  demands  it,  the  certificate  must  also 
nention  his  conduct  and  his  services.  It  is  forbidden  for  the  employer  to  draw 
ittention  to  the  worker  by  advers|  remarks  or  by  marks  made  on  the  certificate 
)r  to  give  in  regard  to  the  worker  any  other  report  than  that  given  in  the  text 
)f  the  certificate. 

PAYMENT    OF    WAGES    AND    FINES — COMPLEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION. 

Wages  must  be  paid  in  currency  or  legal  tender,  and  must  not  be  paid  on 
Sundays.  It  is  forbidden  to  furnish  merchandise  on  credit  in  lieu  of  wages 
vith  the  exception  that  food  and  combustibles  may  be  furnished  at  net  cost 
uid  lodgings  furnished  at  the  customary  local  rents  and  payments  for  these 
leducted  from  the  wages  due.  Workers'  wages  can  be  retained  as  indemnity 
'or  damages  caused  by  an  infraction  of  the  contract,  but  must  not  exceed 
nore  than  one  week's  wages  at  the  fortnightly  settlement,  except  in  case  of 
u'ts  against  fellow-workmen,  of  offenses  against  morality,  or  against  regula- 
ions  for  the  maintenance  of  order  and  security,  and  for  the  fulfillment  of 
statutory  provisions.    In  these  cases  fines  may  be  imposed  to  the  full  extent  of 

54552— OS  3 


! 

i 


34  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE.  ; 

the  wages  cine.  All  fines  must  be  applied  to  the  benefit  of  the  factory  workers* 
and  nsnally  go  to  the  sick  fnnd,  but  this  does  not  affect  the  right  of  the  em-i 
ployer  to  obtain  legal  compensation  for  damage.  Particulars  of  all  fines  musts 
be  entered  by  the  employer  in  a  book,  which  is  open  to  inspection  by  a  Govern-; 
ment  officer. 

Where  there  are  any  workers  under  18  years  of  age  liable  according  to  the 
law  to  attend  a  complementary  course  of  instruction  at  schools  under  the  care 
of  the  State  or  the  community  the  employer  is  obliged  to  grant  such  young 
workers  the  time  necessary  for  this  study  and  the  time  required  is  fixed  by  the 
administration.  This  includes  also  complementary  instruction  to  females  by 
lessons  on  sewing  and  the  care  of  a  household. 

HYGIENE  AND    SAFETY.  i 

The  employer  is  responsible  for  seeing  that  the  workrooms,  motors,  machines, 
and  appliances  are  arranged  so  as  not  to  endanger  the  health  or  life  of  the 
emi)loyees.  Especially  there  must  be  good  light,  sufficient  space,  arrangements 
to  renew  the  air,  and  to  carry  away  the  dust,  lint,  waste,  etc.,  resulting  fromi 
the  work.  All  moving  parts  of  machines  must  be  protected  from  the  workers 
by  covers,  and  all  measures  of  precaution  must  be  taken  to  avoid  dangers 
inherent  to  the  work,  comprising  the  danger  from  fire.  The  employer  must 
have  regulations  and  instructions  assuring  the  conduct  of  the  work  in  a  manner 
exempt  from  danger.  The  employers  must  maintain  these  regulations  and  thej 
are  required  to  see  that  their  operatives  keep  order  and  act  with  propriety 
and  morality.  It  is  specially  recommended  wherever  the  nature  of  the  wort 
permits  that  the  sexes  be  separated  at  their  work.  Separate  clothes  rooms 
toilet  rooms,  etc.,  must  be  provided  for  men  and  women.  Such  rooms  must  bf 
installed  in  sufficient  numbers  for  the  number  of  workers  employed  and  ac 
cording  to  the  laws  of  hygiene.  Where  youthful  workers  are  employed  th( 
employer  must  keep  a  special  watch  over  them,  to  see  that  they  keep  the  laws 
of  hygiene  and  good  manners  necessary  for  their  age.  In  certain  cases  th( 
police  are  directed  to  inspect  plants  and  direct  alterations,  such  as  providing 
halls  in  cold  weather  for  the  workers  to  take  their  meals  in,  etc. 

CONTRACTS  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER  AND  EMPLOYEE. 

Contracts  between  employer  and  employee  shall  ordinarily  include  a  pro 
vision  for  two  weeks'  notice  before  the  contract  is  terminated,  but  by  specia 
arrangement  between  employee  and  employer  this  notice  in  regard  to  termina 
tion  of  employment  may  be  of  any  duration  desired,  but  it  must  be  equallj 
binding  on  both. 

The  worker  may  be  discharged  without  the  notice  required  by  his  contrae 
only  under  the  following  circumstances :  False  representations  of  the  workei 
in  making  the  contract;  theft  or  other  criminal  acts;  leaving  work  without  per 
mission  or  refusing  to  fulfill  the  contract;  carrying  fire  or  lights  about  con 
trary  to  order ;  acts  of  violence  or  gross  abuse  directed  against  his  employer 
his  family,  or  representative;  willful  damage  to  property  of  employer  or  fellow 
workmen ;  inducing  members  of  the  employer's  family  or  his  representative  t( 
behave  in  a  manner  contrary  to  law  or  morality ;  inability  to  continue  work  oi 
a  contagious  disease.  In  such  cases  there  is  due  to  the  worker  no  indemnity 
but  in  the  first  seven  cases  he  can  not  be  summarily  dismissed  without  a  firsi 
warning  if  the  facts  in  question  have  been  known  to  the  employer  for  over  i 
week. 

The  operative  may  quit  before  the  completion  of  his  contract  in  the  following 
cases  only:  If  he  is  incapable  of  continuing  work;  gross  abuse  by  employer  oi 
his  representative  against  the  worker  or  members  of  his  family ;  the  inducing 
by  employer  or  his  representative,  of  members  of  the  worker's  family  to  behave 
in  a  manner  contrary  to  law  or  morality;  nonpayment  of  wages  in  the  pre 
scribed  manner ;  if  the  continuation  of  the  work  is  dangerous  to  the  health  o; 
life  of  the  worker  in  a  manner  not  included  in  the  contract;  unjustifiabh 
prejudice;  neglect  to  provide  sufficient  work  for  pieceworkers. 

An  employer  who  engages  a  workman  knowing  that  he  has  not  fulfilled  hi! 
contract  with  his  former  employer  or  who  entices  him  away  from  such  em 
ployer  is  liable  for  damages  therefor. 

POSTING  OF  REGULATIONS — EMPLOYMENT  OF  CHILDREN. 

There  must  be  hung  up  in  conspicuous  places  in  every  factory  the  rules  undei 
which  the  factory  is  operated,  stating  the  hours  of  work,  the  intervals  fo; 
meals,  the  time  and  manner  of  paying  wages,  the  length  of  notice  required  fo) 


GERMANY  COTTON  MILLS. 


36 


terminating  worlc,  and  the  conditions  wbicli  render  notice  unnecessary,  and 
particulars  of  punislmients,  including  fines  and  the  objects  to  which  they  are 
to  be  applied.  Before  promulgating  any  rules  they  must  be  submitted  to  a  com- 
mittee of  the  workmen  for  consideration,  and  then  with  any  written  amendments 
or  objections  from  them  submitted  to  a  factory  inspector  and  be  approved  or 
amended  by  him  before  issuing.  After  promulgation  the  rules  are  binding  on 
both  employer  and  employee. 

It  is  forbidden  to  employ  children  under  13  years  of  age.  Children  under 
this  age  are  compelled  to  attend  school.  Between  13  and  14  years  of  age  they 
may  be  employed  if  an  inspector  decides  that  they  are  no  longer  liable  for 
school,  but  in  this  case  they  can  not  be  employed  over  six  hours  a  day.  Youth- 
ful workers  between  14  and  16  years  of  age  can  not  work  over  ten  hours  a  day. 
They  must  not  be  employed  before  5.30  o'clock  in  the  morning  nor  later  than  S.30 
o'clock  at  night.  They  must  have  regular  periods  for  rest.  The  children  who 
work  six  hours  must  have  at  least  a  half  an  hour  pause.  Youthful  workers 
between  14  and  16  must  have  at  least  an  hour  at  midday  and  a  half  hour  in 
both  forenoon  and  afternoon.  If  they  do  not  work  over  eight  hours  a  day  the 
short  rests  may  be  omitted  if  there  is  no  continuous  period  of  work  over  four 
hours.  During  these  rests  they  are  forbidden  to  stay  in  the  factory  and  should 
be  out  in  the  open  air. 

EMPLOYMENT  OF   WOMEN  OVERTIME  WORK. 

Women  must  not  be  employed  in  the  factory  at  night  between  8.30  and  5.30 
o'clock,  nor  on  the  days  before  Sundays  and  holidays  after  5.30  o'clock  p.  m. 
Women  over  16  can  work  up  to  eleven  hours  a  day,  but  not  longer,  and  not 
over  ten  hours  a  day  on  Saturdays  and  the  days  before  holidays.  After  Janu- 
ary 1,  1910,  according  to  the  law  just  passed,  women  can  not  work  over  ten 
hours  a  day.  Women  who  have  households  to  manage  can  leave  a  half  hour 
before  the  midday  stopping  time,  unless  the  midday  rest  is  at  least  an  hour  and 
a  half.  Women  who  are  accouched  are  forbidden  to  work  for  four  weeks  there- 
after and  only  within  six  weeks  on  a  doctor's  certificate. 

When  an  employer  engages  a  worker  under  16  he  has  to  hand  a  written  notice 
to  the  police,  giving  the  hours  of  work,  the  time  at  which  they  commence  and 
stop,  the  hours  for  rest,  and  the  nature  of  the  occupation.  A  copy  of  the  law  as 
it  relates  to  work  by  minors  must  be  posted  up  in  rooms  where  such  minors  are 
employed. 

In  case  of  urgent  work  and  on  demand  from  the  employer  the  administration 
can  authorize  operatives  over  16  to  work  as  long  as  thirteen  hours  a  day 
and  up  to  10  o'clock  at  night  for  two  weeks.  After  January  1,  1910,  the  new 
law  limits  overtime  to  twelve  in  place  of  thirteen  hours.  This  authorization 
can  not  include  more  than  forty  days  in  one  year  for  any  one  factory.  Au- 
thorization to  work  overtime  more  than  two  weeks  running  can  only  be  given 
by  the  higher  authorities,  and  more  than  forty  days  is  only  allowed  in  case 
the  total  number  of  hours  per  year,  divided  by  the  total  number  of  days  worked, 
does  not  exceed  the  maximum  fixed  by  law — that  is,  eleven  hours  for  adult 
women.  The  demand  must  be  made  in  writing  and  a  reply  given  within  three 
days.  In  case  of  the  interruption  of  work  by  flood,  fire,  or  accident,  there 
may  be  overtime  worked  for  four  weeks  by  permission  of  the  higher  author- 
ities; for  longer  than  that  only  by  special  permission  of  the  chancellor. 

GENERAL  REGULATIONS. 

There  is  no  legal  regulation  of  the  hours  of  work  for  men,  but  for  women 
it  is  eleven  hours,  except  on  Saturdays  and  days  before  holidays,  when  it  is 
ten,  and  as  there  are  a  large  number  of  women  employed  in  the  factories, 
this  practically  fixes  the  working  hours  of  the  factory.  Since  the  first  part 
of  1906  there  have  been  a  large  number  of  mills  running  only  ten  hours  a  day 
instead  of  the  legal  eleven,  partly  because  of  demands  made  by  the  unions 
and  partly  from  the  altruistic  attitude  of  some  employers,  which  have  forced 
others  to  follow  to  retain  their  workers.  The  real  time  is  less  than  the 
nominal  time  by  from  a  half  to  three-fourths  of  an  hour,  as  women  are  allowed 
to  leave  a  half  hour  before  midday,  and  this  can  not  be  counted  against  them, 
and  in  some  cases  the  afternoon  rests  are  not  deducted.  Under  the  restric- 
tions imposed  by  the  new  law  with  regard  to  women,  etc.,  all  German  cotton 
mills  in  1910  will  be  forced  down  to  sixty  hours  a  week  as  the  maximum. 
Factory  inspectors  of  the  Imperial  Government  are  appointed  to  see  that  the 
law  is  carried  out,  and  factories  where  women  or  youthful  workers  are  em- 
ployed must  be  visited  once  every  six  months.  A  few  of  these  inspectors  are 
women. 


1 


EMPLOYEES'  COMPULSORY  INSURANCE, 


AVORKING  PEOPLE  PROTECTED  AGAINST  ILLNESS,  OLD  AGE,  AND  ACCIDENT          j  ; 

PROVISIONS   OF   THE  LAAV. 

Paternal  laws  have  been  enacted  in  Germany  of  more  far-reaching 
character  than  those  enacted  by  any  other  nation,  and  prominent  j 
among  such  hiws  are  those  in  regard  to  compulsory  insurance  of 
Avorkmen.    Compulsory  insurance  applies  to  all  workers  in  Germany,  ;  J' 
textile  or  otherwise,  and  some  understanding  of  its  ramifications  is  ^ 
necessary  in  contrasting  the  position  of  both  mill  owner  and  opera-  n 
tive  in  Germany  with  those  of  other  nations.    Every  worker,  whether  tl 
male  or  fem-ale,  Avho  receives  under  $470  a  year,  has  to  insure  against 
sickness  and  against  old  age  or  invalidity,  and  has  to  be  insured  by  his  " 
employer  against  accident.  I 

Sick  insurance  provides  against  temporary  illness  during  a  period  j, 
not  to  exceed  twenty-six  Aveeks.  Old  age  and  invalidity  insurance  p 
provides  for  prolonged  illness  after  tAventy-six  Aveeks  and  for  perma- 
nent  incapacity  through  chronic  infirmity  or  old  age.  Accident  insur-  g 
ance  proAddes  for  relief  during,  temporary  disablement,  permanent  jj 
support  in  serious  disablement,  burial  expenses,  and  assistance  to  (i 
widows  and  orphans  in  case  of  death. 

Of  the  sick  insurance  tAvo-thirds  is  paid  by  the  employees  and  one-  ^ 
third  by  the  employers ;  of  the  old-age  and  invalidity  insurance  half  ([ 
is  paid  by  the  employees  and  half  by  the  employers,  Avhile  the  acci-  it 
dent  insurance  is  borne  by  the  employers  alone.  The  sick  insurance  o] 
premium  A^aries  betAveen  2  and  4  per  cent  of  the  wages  paid,  and  the  \\ 
old  age  and  iuA^alidity  premium  amounts  to  about  1  per  cent  of  the  ti 
wages  paid.  The  portion  of  this  burden  borne  by  the  employee  is 
therefore  not  heavy,  but  is  nevertheless  felt.  tt 

The  laAv  in  regard  to  compulsory  insurance  against  accidents  Avas  tf 
enacted  July  6,  1884,  and  this  was  followed  December  1,  1884,  by  the  jj 
law  in  regard  to  compulsory  insurance  against  sickness.    On  June 
23,  1889,  there  was  passed  a  compulsory  law  in  regard  to  old  age  and  il 
invalidity,  and  this  laAV  Avas  amended  to  its  present  form  July  13, 
1899. 

SICK  INSURANCE. 

This  law  has  been  modified  three  times  since  its  inception,  the  last 
time  in  1903.    EA^ery  Gernian  Avorker,  of  both  sexes,  receiving  under 
$470  a  year  must  be  insured  against  sickness,  but  this  insurance  may 
be  either  public  or  private.    In  the  factories  all  Avorkers  are  in- 
36 


i 


GEEMANY  EMPLOYEES^  COMPULSOEY  INSUEANCE. 


37 


scribed  as  members  of  the  sick  insurance  fund,  unless  they  produce 
testimony  that  they  are  insured  in  a  private  company  that  meets  the 
requirements  of  the  law.  At  every  pay  roll  two-thirds  of  the  pre- 
mium required  is  retained  by  the  company  and  added  to  the'  one- 
third  paid  by  the  company  is  turned  over  to  the  sick  fund. 

A  good  many  factories  pay  two-thirds  of  the  premium  and  only 
leave  one-third  to  be  paid  by  their  employees,  but  it  is  illegal  for 
the  employer  to  pay  over  two-thirds.  In  some  few  factories  where 
the  sick  fund  has  been  long  established  there  is  an  accumulated  fund, 
and  the  interest  from  this  fund  reduces  considerably  the  premium  to 
be  paid.  In  other  factories  Avhere  there  has  been  more  sickness  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  full  amount  allowed  by  law  does  not 
suffice,  and  in  this  case  the  factory  usually  makes  up  the  deficit  vol- 
untarily. 

COLLECTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FUNDS  SPECIAL  INSURANCE. 

The  funds  of  the  sick  insurance  are  collected  and  distributed  in 
each  district  by  trade  associations  of  that  district.  A  meeting  is 
held  by  each  association  at  least  once  a  year  and  a  committee  ap- 
pointed to  control  the  collection  and  distribution-of  the  funds.  The 
meeting  is  composed  of  delegates  elected  by  the  workers,  usually  to 
the  number  of  5  or  10  per  cent  of  the  insured  that  they  represent,  and 
the  employers  are  represented  in  both  meeting  and  committee  ac- 
cording to  their  proportionate  contributions,  each  factory  being  rep- 
resented. The  regulations,  after  consultation  with  all  interested,  are 
laid  clown  by  the  meeting  and  approved  by  the  higher  board  of  man- 
agement. This  institution  has  legal  personification  and  considerable 
powers  of  self-government,  though  under  the  superintendence'  of  the 
State.  Disputes  are  settled  by  local  boards  of  arbitration  formed  in 
each  district.  For  the  furthering  of  their  nuitual  interests  several 
sick-fiuid  institutions  can  form  themselves  into  cooperative  associa- 
tions. 

District  sick  insurance  is  an  enlarged  arrangement  for  complying 
with  the  demands  of  the  law  regarding  compulsory  insurance.  All 
those  belong  to  the  district  sick  insurance  who  are  not  provided  for 
in  the  other  admissible  forms  of  sick  insurance.  The  management 
of  the  district  sick  insurance  is  undertaken  by  the  representatives  of 
the  district.  Under  certain  conditions  a  mutual  sick- fund  associa- 
tion can  be  formed  for  several  districts. 

Membership  in  special  sick  insurance  institutions,  such  as  regis- 
tered charitable  funds  associations,  builders'  sick  funds,  etc.,  which 
comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  law,  release  one  from  the  ordi- 
nary sick-insurance  funds. 

Factories  may  set  up  a  special  sick  fund  for  their  own  employees 
if  the  number  of  such  employees  are  over  50,  and  this  becomes  obliga- 
tory on  the  request  of  the  district  board  of  management  or  of  the  sick 
institution  to  Avhich  the  workmen  belong.  The  employers  can  also 
be  forced  to  form  such  a  sick  fund  among  their  employees  if  there 
is  good  reason  to  fear  special  danger  of  illness  in  their  factories. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  OPERATIVES — MEDICAL  TREATMENT  AND  BENEFITS. 

As  every  worker  is  enrolled  on  some  sick  insurance  fund,  this 
means  that  before  employment  in  Germany  every  worker  has  to  be 
physically  examined.    He  is  then  tentatively  engaged,  but  the  en- 


38 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


gagement  is  not  considered  binding  until  after  two  weeks'  trial.  If 
he  is  found  to  be  incapacitated  from  work  or  suffering  from  any  dis- 
ease, then  the  sick  fund  to  which  he  belonged  at  his  last  place  of 
work  is  compelled  to  charge  themselves  with  his  relief  or  he  has  to  be 
looked  after  by  the  sick  fund  of  his  community. 

The  operatives  are  divided  into  eight  classes,  according  to  their 
wages  per  day,  the  first  class  having  an  average  of  1  mark  (23.8 
cents),  the  second  of  1.50  marks  (35.7  cents),  and  so  on  to  the  eighth 
class,  which  has  an  average  of  5  marks  ($1.19)  a  day.  The  sick  bene- 
fit amounts  to  50  per  cent  of  the  wages  of  the  class  to  which  he  be- 
longs, and  is  thus  50  to  250  pfennigs  (11.9  to  59.7  cents)  per  day. 
In  special  cases  this  indemnity  is  allowed  to  be  raised  to  three-fourths 
of  the  average  wages  of  his  class. 

In  case  of  sickness  there  is  furnished  gratuitously  on  the  first  day 
free  medical  treatment,  with  medicines,  medicaments,  bandages, 
spectacles,  trusses,  or  other  appliances  that  will  enable  the  patient 
to  continue  at  work  or  to  hasten  his  cure.  After  three  days  there  is 
rendered  sick-benefit  wages.  This  indemnity  is  payable  every  Sat- 
urday, and  continues  as  long  as  the  illness  lasts,  if  not  over  twenty- 
six  weeks.  The  sick-fund  assistance  ceases  at  the  latest  at  the  ex- 
piration of  the  twenty-sixth  week  after  the  commencement  of  the  sick 
payment.  For  continued  illness  after  twenty-six  weeks,  whether  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  the  burden  rests  on  the  old-age  and  disability 
fund. 

TREATMENT  OF  SPECIAL  CASES. 

In  case  of  illness  for  which  the  patient  himself  is  to  blame,  as,  for 
instance,  through  fights,  blows,  drunkenness,  etc.,  the  associations  or 
communities  are  to  decide  for  themselves  whether  sick  payment  shall 
be  rendered  at  all  or  partly. 

In  case  of  maladies  that  it  is  impossible  to  treat  advantageously  at 
home,  especially  in  the  case  of  contagious  diseases,  the  committee  of 
the  sick  fund  may  have  the  patient  treated  at  a  hospital.  In  this 
case,  if  the  patient  is  a  single  person,  he  only  receives  one-fourth  of 
the  sick  benefit  he  would  otherwise  be  entitled  to,  but  is  under  no 
expense  at  the  hospital.  In  the  case  of  a  married  man,  having  a 
wife  or  family  dependent  on  him,  he  may  receive  the  full  benefit  as 
if  treated  at  home,  if  circumstances  justify  it.  In  the  Rhine  province 
and  some  other  sections  the  patient  has  the  right  to  choose  his  own 
doctor. 

Women  accouched  receive  sick  benefit  for  six  weeks.  They  are  not 
allowed  to  work  for  four  weeks  and  not  until  the  full  six  weeks,  unless 
on  a  doctor's  certificate. 

DEATH  BENEFITS  PREMIUMS  AND  TOTAL  RECEIPTS. 

In  case  of  the  decease  of  a  member  of  the  sick  benefit  fund  his  family 
receives  an  indemnity  equal  to  twenty  times  the  average  daily  wages 
of  the  class  to  which  he  belonged,  this  indemnity  therefore  ranging 
between  20  and  100  marks  ($4.76  and  $23.80).  Some  sick  funds  give 
also  in  case  of  the  decease  of  members  of  the  family  of  one  of  their 
contributors. 


GERMANY  EMPLOYEES '  COMPULSORY  INSURANCE. 


39 


The  maximum  sick  fund  premium  is  fixed  by  law  at  4  per  cent  of 
the  wages,  of  which  the  employee  is  to  pay  two-thirds  and  the  em- 
jployer  one-third,  but  the  premium  is  usually  2  or  3  per  cent. 

The  total  receipts  yearly  by  the  sick  funds  amount  to  some 
250,000,000  marks  ($59,500,000)  and  the  expenditures  to  nearly  as 
much.  The  largest  expenditure  is  for  sick  indemnities  to  workmen, 
amounting  to  nearly  one-half  of  the  total,  then  for  doctors,  then,  in 
their  order,  for  medicines  and  appliances,  hospitals  and  clinics,  pay- 
iments  to  widows  and  orphans,  etc. 

INVALIDITY  AND  OLD-AGE  INSURANCE. 

Persons  compelled  to  take  this  insurance  are  all  workers  of  10  years 
of  age  and  upward,  such  as  workmen  in  factories,  laborers,  daily 
paid  workmen  of  all  kinds,  servants,  journeymen,  clerks,  overseers, 
foremen,  private  teachers  (v/ith  salaries  under  2,000  marks,  or  $476), 
technical  experts,  etc.  The  exemptions  are  invalids,  persons  entitled 
to  pensions,  as,  for  instance,  teachers  employed  by  the  State,  etc., 
persons  who  do  not  work  for  regular  wages  but  temporarily  tender 
services  from  time  to  time,  and  those  who  obtain  their  board  and 
lodging  as  payment  for  their  work.  On  request  the  following  ]:)ersons 
can  be  exempted  from  this  insurance :  Those  who  already  draw  j^en- 
sions  or  accident  premiums,  those  over  70  years  of  age,  those  who  are 
not  employed  more  than  twelve  weeks  a  year  for  wages;  the  latter, 
however,  must  have  been  already  insured  for  at  least  one  hn.ndred 
weeks.  The  applications  for  release  must  be  presented  to  the  authori- 
ties in  writing,  and  such  persons  receive  a  green  card  signifying  their 
release  from  compulsory  insurance.  Compulsory  insurance  extends 
to  those  following  a  household  occupation  in  the  tobacco  and  textile 
industries. 

PREMIUMS  AND   METHODS   OF  PAYMENT — CLASSIFICATIONS   OF  INSURED. 

The  payments  of  invalidity  and  old-age  insurance  premiums  is 
divided  equally  between  employer  and  employee,  and  it  is  a  misde- 
meanor for  the  employer  to  pay  more  or  less  than  one-half.  Every 
insurer  is  supplied  with  a  pocketbook  containing  a  card  available  for 
one  year.  The  card  and  the  book  give  the  name  and  the  occupation 
of  the  insured.  The  card  has  lines  for  the  inscription  of  the  days  of 
sickness  and  of  military  service.  It  is  divided  into  52  squares,  destined 
to  receive  52  stamps  each  of  the  value  of  the  weekly  contribution. 
Each  week  a  stamp  must  be  bought  and  pasted  in,  and  this  must  be 
defaced  by  writing  thereon  the  date.  These  stamps  can  be  bought 
at  the  post-office  or  at  certain  special  bureaus. 

Usually  the  employer  deducts  half  the  premium,  pastes  in  the 
stamp  for  the  full  amount,  and  then  returns  the  book  to  the  em- 
ployee. The  employer  is  forbidden  to  retain  the  book  after  pasting 
in  and  defacing  the  stamp.  When  there  have  been  52  stamps  put  in, 
filling  all  the  squares,  the  book  is  turned  in  and  another  one  furnished. 
There  is  allowed  a  maximum  delay  of  two  years  in  the  filling  in  and 
delivery  of  the  card  before  the  workman  loses  his  insurance  rights. 
Weeks  during  wdiich  the  employee  was  sick  or  in  military  service 
count  as  weeks  of  payment  without  pasting  in  any  stamps,  but  a  cer- 
tificate must  be  furnished  to  prove  sickness.  Also  women  accouched 
are  allowed  to  count  six  weeks  without  stamps  as  payment  weeks. 


40 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


The  insured  are  divided  into  five  classes  according  to  wages  re- 
ceived, as  folloAvs: 

[100  pf('nniss=l  mark;  1  mark=23.S  cents.] 


Class. 

Annual  wages. 

Weekly- 
payments. 

Class. 

Annual  wages. 

Weekly 
payments. 

First   

Under  350   

Pfennigs. 
14 
20 
24 

Fourth  

Marks. 
850  to  1,150  

Pfermiqs. 
'  30 
36 

Second  

350  to  550  

Fifth  

Above  1,150  

Third  

550  to  850  

RETURN    PREMIUMS  TREATMENT    ACCORDED    THE  INSURED. 

Half  of  the  premiums  paid  are  returned  under  the  folloAving 
conditions:  In  case  of  the  death  of  the  insured  after  he  has  paid 
at  least  two  hundred  weekly  premiums;  in  case  of  invalidity  due 
to  accident,  if  the  contributions  paid  for  insurance  against  accident 
are  more  than  those  to  which  the  insurance  against  invalidity  have 
given  the  right,  and  the  assured  has  paid  at  least  200  premiums; 
in  case  of  the  marriage  of  a  woman  who  has  paid  at  least  200  weekly 
premiums. 

Temporary  illness  up  to  twenty-six  weeks  is  a  charge  on  the  sick 
insurance  fund.  After  twenty-six  weeks  it  becomes  a  charge  on  the 
old-age  and  invalidity  insurance  fund,  and  the  patient  has  the  right 
to  all  attendance,  medicine,  and  appliances  that  may  tend  to  effect 
a  cure,  such  as  massage  treatment,  treatment  with  special  baths, 
operations  from  time  to  time  by  specialists,  treatment  in  hospitals, 
sanitariums,  houses  of  convalescence,  etc.  In  cases  of  tuberculosis 
they  are  transferred  to  special  tuberculosis  sanitariums  and  given 
open-air  treatment,  etc.  Convalescents  are  given  food  suitable  to 
their  case,  even  at  their  homes.  If  their  illness  incapacitates  them 
for  their  former  occupation  the}^  are  maintained  during  their  ap- 
prenticeship at  another  trade  to  which  they  may  be  suited.  In  this 
way  many  workers  are  prevented  from  becoming  a  permanent  charge 
on  their  relatives  or  the  State,  and  enabled  to  become  able  to  again 
sustain  themselves  either  wholly  or  in  part. 

YEARLY  REMUNERATION   OF  THE  INVALID  AND  AGED. 

The  yearly  remuneration  received  by  an  invalid  is  divided  into 
three  parts :  A  fundamental  sum  corresponding  to  the  class  in  which 
he  was  insured  based  on  his  regular  wages;  a  sum  that  is  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  number  of  weekly  payments  made  by  a  weekly 
coefficient  fixed  by  law ;  a  fixed  indemnity,  furnished  by  the  Govern- 
ment, which  runs  from  50  to  62  marks  ($11.90  to  $14.76).  The 
fundamental  sums  and  the  weekly  coefficients  for  the  five  classes 
l^reviously  noted  are  as  follows: 


Class. 

Fundamental 
sum. 

Weekly- 
coefficient. 

Class. 

Fundamental 
sum. 

Weekly 
coefficient. 

First   

Marks. 

60 
70 
80 

Pfennigs. 

3 
6 
8 

Fourth  

Marks. 

90 
100 

Pfennigs. 

10 
12 

Fifth  

Third  

For  example,  suppose  one  has  paid  800  weekly  premiums  of  class 
4  and  then  becomes  incapacitated  for  work  he  will  receive  the  follow- 
ing: The  fundamental  sum  of  claiss  4,  90  marks  ($21.42)  ;  800  pay- 
ments of  class  4,  10  j)fennigs  per  payment,  80  marks  ($19.04) ; 


GERMANY  EMPLOYEES^  COMPULSORY  INSURANCE.  41 


indemnity  from  the  Government,  50  marks  ($11.90)  ;  total  yearly 
return,  220  marks  ($52.36).    In  this  case  the  insured  after  working 
sixteen  years  had  paid  120  marks  ($28.56)  (the  other  half  having 
:  been  paid  by  his  employer)   and  on  becoming  incapacitated  for 
s,  work,  which  might  be  at  the  age  of  33,  if  he  started  work  at  16,  he 
^  receives  for  the'bahmce  of  his  life  220  marks  ($52.36)  a  year, 
i     In  regard  to  old  age -the  conditions  are:   (1)  Having  attained  an 
^  age  of  70  years;    (2)  having  paid  at  least  1,200  weekly  premiums, 
which  would  take  twenty-four  years.    As  the  law  was  only  promul- 
gated in  1889,  to  take  effect  January  1,  1891,  there  has  not  yet  been 
any  entitled  to  the  old-age  pension  under  the  second  condition.  For 
all  persons  who  were  over  40  years  of  age  when  the  new  insurance 
came  into  effect  at  the  end  of  1890,  the  waiting  time  of  1,200  pay- 
'J  ments  is  shortened  by  as  many  years  over  forty  as  they  were  at  that 
time,  and  in  this  case  the  year  is  considered  to  be  of  forty  payment 
^  weeks.    For  example:  A  worker  born  in  1830  attained  his  seventieth 
'j  year  in  1900.    He  was  60  years  old  in  1890,  or  twenty  years  over  the 
^  forty  noted  as  the  minimum.    His  waiting  time  was  reduced  from 
I  1,200  by  800  weeks,  leaving  him  only  400  we^^s  to  pay. 

The  yearly  sum  paid  as  old-age  pension  is  calculated  on  the  basis 
'j  of  the  number  of  weekly  premiums  paid  times  a  coefficient  hxed  b^ 
'  the  national  administration  for  each  class.    The  following  are  these 
coefficients:  Class  1,  60  marks;  class  2,  90  marks;  class  3,  120  marks; 
^'  class  4,  150  marks;  class  5,  180  marks. 

is  GOVERNMENT  INDEMNITY  PAYMENTS  AND  RECEIPTS. 

"     In  addition  the  Government  adds  a  fixed  indemnity  of  50  marks 
"  ($11.90).    For  example,  suppose  a  worker  born  in  1835:  He  was  55 
"  years  old  in  1890,  and  in  1905,  when  he  became  70  years  old,  he 
demands  an  old-age  pension.    He  has  made  700  weekly  payments,  of 
which  100  were  in  class  3,  200  in  class  4,  and  400  in  class  5.  The 
payments  in  the  lowest  class  are  disregarded  by  the  law,  so  his  total 
"payments  under  classes  4  and  5  amount  to  1,020  marks  ($242.76), 
and  this  divided  by  600  to  obtain  the  average,  which  is  found  to  be 
170  marks  ($40.76).    Add  to  this  the  50  marks  ($11.90)  of  the  Gov- 
ernment and  we  obtain  220  marks  ($52.36)  as  the  yearly  old-age 
pension  to  be  paid  in  this  case.    To  obtain  this  yearly  pension  the 
worker  has  paid  100  premiums  of  12  pfennigs  each,  200  premiums  of 
15  pfennigs  each,  and  400  premiums  of  18  pfennigs  each,  or  a  total 
y  of  114  marks  ($27.13)  only.    This  is  only  half  the  sum  that  has  been 
'  received  as  premiums  by  the  Government,  as  it  will  be  remembered 
that  the  employer  pays  the  other  half. 

The  sum  received  by  the  Government  yearly  for  the  old-age  and 
invalidity  insurance  amounts  to  some  200,000,000  marks  ($47,600,- 
000),  of  which  part  is  premiums  and  part  interest  on  funds  on  hand 
''  and  investments.    The  yearly  distribution  amounts  to  only  about 
'  150,000,000  marks  ($35,700,000)  a  year,  so  that  there  is  a  yearly  in- 
1  creasing  surplus,  which  at  present  amounts  to  over  1,000,000,000 
marks  ($238,000,000),  and  this  is  exempted  by  law  from  being  drawn 
,  on  for  any  other  purpose  than  that  for  which  it  was  paid  in.  In 
^  1914,  when  the  second  clause  of  the  old-age  pension  comes  into  effect — 
..  that  is,  of  men  being  entitled  to  a  pension  who  have  paid  in  premiums 
..  regularly  for  twenty-four  years — there  will  undoubtedly  be  a  large 
.  draft  made  on  this  surplus. 


42 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


POPULARITY  AND  GOOD  EFFECTS  OF  THE  LAW. 

The  old-age  and  invalidity  insnrance  is  very  popular  in  Germany, 
and  when  the  law  was  modified  and  extended  in  1899  all  classes  voted 
in  its  favor,  so  that  it  was  almost  unanimously  adopted.  One  elfect 
it  has  had  that  is  very  noticeable  from  the  statistics,  viz,  the  decrease 
in  the  death  rate.  There  is  hardly  any  doubt  but  that  this  decrease 
is  due  to  this  law,  especially  the  decrease  in  deaths  from  tuberculosis. 
The  ordinary  workman,  relying  on  his  own  savings,  is  not  able  to 
secure  treatment  necessary  to  effect  a  cure,  but  under  this  law  he 
obtains  this  free,  and  the  large  number  of  special  sanitariums  and  hos- 
pitals erected  by  the  Government  for  the  treatment  of  special  dis- 
eases have  saved  many  lives,  while  the  oversight  exercised  b}^  the  in- 
surance funds  over  the  worker,  by  checking  illnesses  at  the  start,  have 
saved  many  more.  The  associations,  in  furtherance  of  the  health  of 
the  operatives,  have  invested  large  amounts  from  their  surplus  funds 
in  erecting  sanitary  homes  for  the  workers,  and  this  also  has  been  of 
great  benefit. 

The  old-age  and  invalidity  insurance  funds  are  administered  by 
special  associations  and  institutes  which  are  established  for  large  dis- 
tricts or  for  whole  States.  Each  has  a  president,  who  has  the  stand- 
ing of  a  Government  official,  and  an  executive  committee  composed 
of  an  equal  number  of  employers  and  employees,  not  less  than  five  of 
each.  The  employees  are  not  only  represented  on  the  district  com- 
mittee, but  on  the  central  board  and  in  the  tribunals  of  experts. 
Each  district  has  at  least  one  arbitration  board,  with  an  independent 
chairman,  nominated  by  the  Government,  and  assessors  representing 
equally  employers  and  employees.  General  supervision  is  exercised 
by  the  imperial  insurance  office. 

Persons  insured  can  choose  a  higher  class  than  that  to  which  they 
belong  should  they  undertake  to  pay  the  extra  cost.  Optional  insur- 
ance is  possible  in  all  grades  of  wages. 

ACCIDENT  INSURANCE. 

Insurance  against  accidents  in  Germany  is  a  special  organization 
and  is  a  mutual  insurance  among  employers.  Groups  are  formed  of 
the  employers  in  certain  industries  in  specific  localities.  Thus  cotton 
and  woolen  manufacturers  are  placed  together  and  are  divided  into 
five  groups:  South  Germany,  north  Germany,  Saxony,  Silesia,  and 
Prussian  Rhine  and  Westphalia.  All  workers  must  be  insured  by 
their  employers  if  such  workers  make  under  3,000  marks  ($714)  a 
year,  the  annual  wages  being  calculated  as  300  times  the  daily  wages. 

The  five  textile  associations,  composed  of  all  the  cotton  and  woolen 
manufacturers  in  their  respective  districts,  are  legally  incorporated 
bodies  and  have  considerable  powers  of  self-government.  They  fix 
their  own  regulations,  and  these  are  carried  out  by  a  duly  appointed 
committee,  but  they  are  under  the  supervision  of  tlie  imperial  authori- 
ties. The  committee  is  usually  appointed  for  six  years,  and  one-third 
of  the  members  are  renewed  every  two  years.  They  fix  the  amount 
of  indemnity  in  case  of  accidents,  give  orders  to  factories  to  install 
safety  appliances,  such  as  coverings  for  machines,  etc.,  and  can  levy 
fines  on  factories  which  do  not  obey  such  orders.  They  decide  on  what 
measures  are  to  be  taken  to  fix  the  blame  for  an  accident,  direct  what 
treatment  is  to  be  received  by  the  injured,  etc.,  and  have  the  entire 
control  of  the  receipts  and  disbursements  of  funds. 


GERMANY  EMPLOYEES^  COMPULSOEY  INSURANCE.  48 


I  PROVISIONS,  OPERATIONS,  AND  BENEFITS. 

Y'  The  workers  are  not  members  of  this  association   as  they  pay 

l  othing  toward  it,  it  being  entirely  supported  by  the  employers.  The 
ijiired  man,  however,  is  supported  for  the  first  thirteen  weeks  at  the 
'  ost  of  the  sick-insurance  fund  to  w^hich  the  w^orkers  belong,  and  from 

vhich  he  receives  a  fixed  daily  indemnity.  After  the  thirteenth  w^eek 
'4he  Employers'  Accident  Association  takes  charge  of  the  case. 

[  In  case  of  an  accident  the  employer  has  immediately  to  notify  the 
'^'•olice  and  the  accident  association  in  writing.  He  has  three  days  in 
^  . hich  to  make  this  declaration.  The  injured  man  is  taken  in  charge 
^  y  the  sick  fund  and  for  the  first  four  weeks  receives  one-half  of  his 

egular  wages  and  from  then  up  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  week 
Jiwo-thirds  of  his  regular  wages,  the  sick  fund  paying  one-half  and  the 

Employer  one-sixth. 

'I'  If  the  injured  man  is  treated  at  a  hospital  and  is  married,  he  re- 
''  eives  one-fourth  of  his  regular  wages  up  to  the  end  of  the  fourth 
/eek,  and  then  one-third  up  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  week.  He  is 
'J  hen  under  the  care  of  the  Employers'  Accident  Association,  and  this 
ssociation  may  request  the  sick  fund  to  continue  the  treatment  at  its 
harge  or  it  may  take  charge  of  the  case  itself.  In  this  latter  event 
lie  jDatient  is  specially  examined  by  doctors.  If  judged  necessary 
|or  his  cure,  he  is  sent  to  special  baths,  to  mechanical-thernj)iM!tical 
stablishments,  to  convalescent  houses,  etc.  He  is  then  (examined 
new  and  the  degree  of  his  incapacity  is  stated  in  percentage  of  total 
ncapacity  for  work.  If  totally  incapacitated  for  work  he  receives, 
iwo-third  of  his  regular  wages,  and  if  partially  incapacitated,  from 
5  per  cent  up,  according  to  the  degree  of  incapacity  stated  by  the 
loctors  in  percentage.  When  not  only  incapacitated  from  following 
lis  trade,  but  totally  helpless,  he  may  receive  the  full  amount  of  his 
egidar  wages.  When  out  of  Avork,  in  consequence  of  the  accident, 
ither  part  or  full  wages  are  paid,  according  to  circumstances. 

EIGHT  OF  APPEAL  FROM  INDEMNITY  ALLOTMENT. 

The  injured  man  has  a  right  to  appeal  if  he  thinks  the  percentage 
tated  })y  the  doctors,  and  hence  his  consequent  indenmity,  too  small. 
^Iso  at  any  time  for  five  j^ears  after  the  accident  he  has  a  right  to 
lemand  increased  indenmity  if  his  incapacity  increases,  and,  vice 
^ersa,  the  association  has  a  right  to  cut  down  his  indenmity  if  there 
s  noted  an  improvement  in  his  condition,  such  questions  to  be  legally 
lecided  by  boards  of  experts.  After  five  years  there  can  be  no  change 
v^ithout  special  authority  from  those  higher  up. 

The  indemnities  are  payable  by  post  monthly  in  advance.  The 
unds  necessary  are  supplied  by  assessments  levied  on  the  members  of 
he  association  based  on  the  expenses  of  the  preceding  year.  If  all 
he  employers  are  in  industries  wdth  equal  risks  the  assessment  is  the 
ame  for  each,  proportionate  to  his  total  w^ages  paid.  This  is  never 
he  case,  however,  and  each  association  fixes  the  percentage  to  be 
paid  by  each  branch  of  the  industry  according  to  the  percentage  of 
iccidents  that  their  records  show  to  come  from  this  branch.  Thus 
n  cotton  manufacturing  most  factories  show  the  largest  percentage 
)f  accidents  to  be  from  the  electrical  installations,  then  spinning^ 
slants,  then  bleaching,  dyeing  and  finishing,  then  twisting  plants, 
hen  weaving,  then  knitting,  etc.    The  percentage  to  be  paid  by  each 


44 


COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


manufacturer  on  his  total  wages  is  thus  fixed  according  to  Avhethe 
he  has  spinning  only  or  spinning  and  twisting,  etc.,  being  mathe 
niatically  computed  according  to  the  ascertained  coefficients,  am 
these  coefficients  being  changed  each  year  according  to  the  propor 
tion  shown  by  the  preceding  year. 

APrORTIONMKNT   OF   ASSESSMENTS  PAYMENTS   TO  FAMILY  OF  ASSURED. 

It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  there  is  rarely  any  great  varia 
tion  in  these  coefficients — that  is,  in  a  certain  district  the  proportioi 
of  accidents  from  spinning  mills,  from  weaving  mills,  from  dy 
works,  from  knitting  mills,  etc.,  will  be  found  to  show  a  remarkabl 
conformity  year  after  year,  unless  there  is  some  important  chang 
made  in  the  methods  of  work.  Where  one  mill  shows  a  much  highe 
proportion  of  accidents  than  the  average,  this  mill  has  its  dange 
coefficient  increased  correspondingly,  and  the  committee  examines  th 
mill  to  ascertain  the  causes  of  such  accidents  and  may  order  specia 
safeguards  provided  where  found  necessar}^  For  spinning  mills  th 
ordinary  assessment  will  be  about  1  per  cent  of  the  total  wages 
whereas  for  weaving  mills  it  is  usually  not  much  over  one-half  of  : 
per  cent. 

In  case  of  death  from  accident  the  family  of  the  assured  receives 
Burial  money  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  average  annual  wages,  an( 
this  sum  must  not  be  under  50  marks  ($11.90)  ;  the  widow  is  paid  s 
yearly  allowance  of  20  per  cent  of  the  annual  wages  of  the  deceasec 
until  her  death  or  remarriage,  and  two  children  under  15  years  o 
age  may  receive  20  per  cent  each  until  they  reach  the  age  of  IG;  i: 
there  are  other  dependent  relatives  they  may  also  get  20  per  cent  i 
in  want,  but  the  total  allowance  must  not  exceed  60  per  cent.  I 
Avidow  who  remarries  receives  one  payment  of  GO  per  cent  in  full  o: 
all  claims  on  the  fund. 

If  it  is  proved  that  the  accident  Avas  voluntary  on  the  part  of  th< 
worker  he  gets  nothing,  and  there  are  severe  penalties  if  a  patient  i 
found  to  be  exaggerating  his  injuries  to  obtain  a  larger  pension 
Also,  if  an  accident  is  due  to  the  culpable  carelessness  of  the  employe: 
in  neglecting  proper  precautions  then  he  is  liable  for  all  damage 
and  the  association  is  not  held  responsible. 


TRADE  ORGANIZATIONS. 


STABLISIIMENT  AND  OBJECTS  OF  AVORKMEn's   UNIONS  OIJG ANIZATIONS 

AMONG  THE  EMPLOYERS. 

In  1731  orgiinizations  of  workmen  in  Prussia  were  absolutely  for  - 
idden  by  law.  This  law  Avas  partially  repealed  in  ISttS,  but  soon  put 
1  force  again,  and  was  not  finally  abolished  until  18G8.  They  then 
iacreased  rapidly,  and  as  many  were  socialistic,  and  even  revolution- 
ry,  in  their  scope  the  Government  deemed  them  a  menace  and  in 
78  once  more  passed  laws  against  such  unions,  Avhich  had  the  effect 
f  suppressing  large  numbers  of  bodies  of  workmen.  In  1890  these 
estrictions  were  finally  removed  and  nearly  one-tenth  of  the  German 
\^orkers  are  now  estimated  to  belong  to  some  union.  Some  unions 
rae  started  from  economic,  intellectual,  or  religious  motives,  but 
)ractically  all  have  become  socialistic. 

There  are  now  a  great  number  of  unions  and  subunions,  but  the 
^eat  bulk  of  these  are  embraced  in  the  following  hve  groups:  (1) 
The  "  Free  "  or  Social  Democratic  Gewerkschaften ;  (2)  the  Chris- 
ian  "  Gewerkschaften;  (3)  the  "German"  or  Hirsch-Duncker  Ge- 
verkvereine;  (4)  the  Evangelical  Workers' Unions ;  (5)  the  Catholic 
/Yorkers'  Unions. 

THE  FREE  TRADES'  UNION. 

The  Social  Democratic  Gewerkschaften,  or,  as  it  is  usually  known, 
he  Free  Trades'  Union,  is  by  far  the  most  important  and  embraces 
;ome  1,100,000  of  the  total  1,500,000  union  operatives  in  Germany. 
3f  the  G0,000  women  in  German  unions  some  48,000  belong  to  this 
)rganization.  It  is  also  the  union  that  appeals  most  strongly  to  the 
;extile  workers,  and  of  some  45,000  men  and  20,000  Avomen  of  the  tex  - 
ile  industry  in  unions,  41,000  men  and  13,000  Avomen  are  "  Free  " 
mionists.  The  largest  group  of  Avorkers  belonging  to  the  Free  Union 
ire  the  metal  Avorkers,  then  the  masons,  the  wood  workers,  and  the 
niners,  the  textile  group  ranking  fifth. 

This  union  was  founaed  in  1867  and  is  the  oldest  of  modern  Ger  • 
nan  trades  unions,  Avith  the  exception  of  the  smaller  unions  of  th(} 
oobacco  Avorkers,  founded  in  1865,  and  that  of  the  typographers, 
founded  in  1866.  All  three  of  these  were  started  before  the  old  laAV 
forbidding  such  organizations  Avas  abrogated.  The  headquarters  of 
uhe  Free  Union  is  at  Berlin.  It  is  a  very  poAverful  body  of  Avorkers 
ind  is  carefully  organized.  Each  class  of  Avorkers  is  grouped  by 
themselves,  according  to  sections,  and  these  again  subdivided.  For 
instance,  all  textile  w^orkers  around  Augsburg  are  entitled  to  join  the 
textile  branch  of  this  union,  but  are  subdivided  into  the  carders'  union, 

45 


46 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


the  spinners'  union,  the  weavers'  union,  the  hosiery  workers'  unioi 
etc.,  and  the  head  of  the  general  union  at  each  center  reports  to  head 
quarters  at  Berlin. 

The  objects  of  this  union  are  educational,  economic,  and  social 
istic.  The  educational  part  is  devoted  to  the  education  of  the  worke 
along  technical  lines,  supplementing  the  primary  school  educatio 
by  lectures,  conferences,  etc.,  and  arranging  apprenticeships.  Th 
economic  part  looks  toward  the  raising  of  wages  and  the  fixing  o 
uniform  wage  schedules  among  all  workers  on  the  same  line  o 
work;  giving  relief  in  case  of  strikes  and  lockouts,  sickness,  etc. 
placing  workers;  organization  of  cooperative  societies;  constructio 
of  good  dwellings  for  workers,  etc.  The  socialistic  part  deals  wit] 
the  general  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  workers,  and  i 
largely  political.  The  annual  assessment  is  from  8  to  16  marks,  o 
say  3^  to  7  cents  a  week,  and  these  assessments,  with  other  source 
of  income,  such  as  investments,  interest,  etc.,  bring  in  over  $5,000,00 
a  year.  The  greater  part  of  this  sum  is  expended  in  sustainin;, 
strikes,  agitating  their  propaganda  by  trade  papers  and  other  mean^ 
assisting  the  sick  and  invalid,  relief  to  operatives  out  of  work 
funeral  expenses,  etc.  The  reserve  fund  is  now  about  $4,000.00C 
The  Social  Democratic  Gewerkschaften  is  supposed  to  be  nonpolitical 
but  they  usually  work  with  the  Social  Democratic  party,  though  the; 
are  not  necessarily  supporters  of  any  one  party,  but  are  free  to  wor] 
with. any  party  from  which  thej^  can  gain  anything  in  furtheranc 
of  their  aims.  The  Social  Democrats  are  avowedly  atheistic,  an( 
the  Social  Democratic  Gewerkschaften  is  largely  so. 

THE  CHRISTIAN  AND  GERMAN  UNIONS. 

This  atheistic  tendency  of  the  Social  Democratic  Gewerkschaftei 
is  one  of  the  main  causes  that  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Christiai 
GcAverkschaften.  The  center  of  this  union  is  at  Cologne,  and  the^ 
number  some  225,000  members,  of  whom  about  32,000  are  textil 
workers.  Their  objects  are  not  materially  different  from  those  o 
the  Social  Democratic  Union,  except  that  they  emphasize  their  belie 
in  religion,  and  their  main  objects  are  the  amelioration  of  the  con 
dition  of  the  working  classes  by  cooperation  am.ong  themselves,  se 
curing  an  impartial  administration  of  the  laws,  and  improving  an( 
extending  them. 

The  entrance  fee  of  the  Christian  Union  is  50  pfennigs  (11.9  cents) 
but  their  yearly  dues  are  higher  than  those  of  any  other  Germai 
union.  These  dues  are  varied  according  to  the  average  wages  re 
ceived  in  the  various  trades,  but  run  from  about  15  to  30  mark 
($3.57  to  $7.14)  a  year.  Their  yearly  receipts  are  about  $600,000,  anc 
they  have  a  reserve  fund  of  about  $300,000.  Most  of  the  railroa( 
and  post-office  employees  belong  to  this  union.  In  spite  of  thei: 
religious  prejudices  against  the  Free  Union  they  work  with  it  fo: 
the  attainment  of  political  ends.  , 

Another  union  that  exercises  a  strong  influence  is  that  called  th< 
German  or  Hirsch-Duncker  Gewerksvereine,  the  latter  name  coming 
from  its  founder.  Doctor  Hirsch.  Their  objects  are  especiall}^  th< 
securing  of  higher  remuneration  for  work  performed.  They  also 
agitate  for  the  modification  of  labor  laws  in  favor  of  the  working 
classes,  the  betterment  of  conditions  of  work;  they  give  aid  in  cas( 


GEKMANY  TRADE  ORGANIZATIONS. 


47 


of  sickness  or  of  stoppage  of  work,  form  cooperative  societies,  in- 
^  Ifetriict  workers  and  give  them  free  counsel,  and  interfere  in  cases  of 
iciifficulties  between  workers  and  employers  to  settle  the  disputes  and 
'arrange  wage  schedules,  etc.    They  are  organized  into  different  trades 
and  these  subdivided.    Their  total  membership  is  about  115,000;  only 
I  some  6,000  textile  workers  belong  to  this  union.    The  object  of  this 
union  was  at  first  purely  economic,  but  it  is  now  more  socialistic. 
3 1  fThe  yearly  dues  are  10  marks  ($2.38).    Their  reserve  fund  is  about 
'f!$800,000. 

itc  , 

EVANGELICAL  AND  CATHOLIC  WORKERS  UNIONS. 

The  Evangelical  Workers'  Unions,  formed  about  1880,  are  divided 
into  five  main  branches,  which  lie  in  Westphalia,  Rhine,  Saxony, 
Silesia,  and  Baden.  Their  object  is  to  elevate  the  worker  morally 
and  intellectually,  but  their  lines  of  work  are  not  materially  differ- 
ent from  the  three  socialistic  unions  noted.  They  started  as  anti- 
socialistic,  but  most  of  their  150,000  members  lean  strongly  toward 
socialism  and  are  active  politically.  Their  main  strength  lies  among 
those  engaged  in  commerce,  such  as  clerks,  bookkeepers,  agents,  em- 
ployees in  hotels  and  restaurants,  etc.,  and  very  little  among  factory 
workers.  They  run  a  paper  to  exploit  their  views,  possess  libraries, 
savings  funds,  relief  funds,  bureaus  for  consultation  and  for  placing 
!  workers,  etc. 

I  The  Catholic  Workers'  Unions  were  started  about  1885,  and  there 
'  are  three  main  unions,  those  of  the  south,  the  east,  and  the  west. 
Their  objects  are  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  unions,  and  they 
strive  to  raise  the  moral  and  intellectual  level  of  their  members 
[  within  Catholic  lines  by  means  of  religious  and  economic  conferences. 
They  issue  a  weekly  paper,  distribute  tracts,  and  are  active  politically 
in  furtherance  of  their  aims.  They  work  usually  in  conjunction  with 
the  Christian  Workers'  Union. 

ORGANIZATIONS  OF  EMPLOYERS. 

The  rapid  increase  of  workers'  unions  and  their  increasing  in- 
sistence on  shorter  hours  and  higher  wages  has  within  the  last  few 
years  led  to  similar  organizations  being  formed  among  the  employers 
for  mutual  protection. 

There  have  been  organizations  among  German  manufacturers  and 
employers  in  general  for  a  long  time,  but  such  organizations  were 
I  mainly  local  or  for  commercial  purposes,  for  fixing  or  changing 
!  tariffs,  etc.  In  1876  there  was  formed  in  Berlin  a  central  union  of 
the  German  industries,  the  object  of  which  was  to  develop  and  ex- 
tend German  trade.  In  1904  the  strike  that  broke  out  among  the 
vigogne  spinning  mills  at  Crimmitzschau,  in  Saxony,  fixed  the  atten- 
tion of  manufacturers  on  the  necessity  of  having  a  stronger  organi- 
1  zation  to  combat  unjust  demands  of  workers,  and,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Saxon  manufacturers,  the  committee  of  the  central  union  of 
German  industries  called  a  meeting  of  German  employers,  which  de- 
cided to  create  a  central  association  of  the  united  employers  of  Ger- 
many. Eleven  members  were  appointed  to  draw  up  plans  and  act  as 
an  executive  committee  in  establishing  the  new  association.  They 
immediately  wired  to  all  manufacturers  and  in  forty-eight  hours  had 
collected  some  $75,000,  and  this  was  later  added  to  largely. 


48 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


This  Central  Association  of  the  United  Employers  of  Germany  is 
now  strongly  organized  and  in  its  scheme  of  defense  it  embraces  all 
the  industrial  unions  of  Germany.  It  was  comparatively  easy  to  or- 
ganize the  German  manufacturers  for  the  reason  that  the  insurance 
laws  of  the  Government  had  already  forced  all  those  in  a  certain  trade 
in  a  certain  section  to  work  together  on  boards  to  administer  in- 
surance funds,  examine  injured  and  sicli  operatives,  and  to  see  that 
each  factory  had  proper  safety  appliances,  etc.  They  were,  there- 
fore, accustomed  to  working  together  and  when  menaced  by  this  new  , 
danger  they  organized  quickly  on  the  new  lines  suggested. 

This  central  union  is  composed  of  representatives  from  all  the 
various  German  employers'  unions,  and  they  have  subcommittees  in 
each  large  industrial  center  representing  all  the  employers'  unions  in 
that  section.  It  is  a  principle  among  all  these  associations  to  try  to 
avoid  strikes  and  lockouts  by  all  means  possible,  and  to  this  pur- 
pose to  have  conferences  with  their  workers,  but  to  refuse  absolutely 
to  listen  to  representatives  of  outside  organizations  of  workers. 

OBJECTS  AND  RESTRICTIONS. 

The  special  object  of  this  central  union  of  the  employers'  associ- 
ations is  announced  to  be  as  follows :  To  protect  employers  against 
unjustifiable  demands  of  workers'  unions ;  to  protect  those  who  desire 
work;  to  extend  and  develop  the  bureau  for  supplying  employers 
with  operatives ;  to  execute  decisions  relative  to  strikes ;  to  take 
charge  of  the  legal  protection  of  its  members  in  all  cases  in  which 
fundamental  principles  are  at  stake. 

The  central  union  endeavors  to  gain  the  adhesion  of  all  manufac- 
turers. It  has  a  bureau  for  supplying  information  to  members  con- 
cerning movements  of  workers  and  their  qualifications,  and  in  regard 
to  the  causes  and  progress  of  strikes  and  the  means  to  combat  them, 
etc.  Manufacturers  may  be  refused  the  right  of  joining  this  union 
if  their  factories  are  isolated  and  at  a  distance  from  industrial  cen- 
ters, or  for  other  reasons  considered  just  by  the  majority  of  the 
executive  committee,  and  members  may  be  dropped  who  refuse  to 
conform  to  the  rules  or  the  decisions  of  the  executive  committee  or 
Avho  by  their  acts  endanger  the  interests  of  the  association. 

There  is  a  general  meeting  once  a  .year  and  funds  are  supplied 
according  to  a  fixed  assessment.  Every  member  is  supposed  to  work 
in  the  common  interest  by  refusing  to  pay  excessive  wages,  refusing 
demands  for  a  reduction  of  the  hours  of  work  at  his  factory  alone, 
refusing  to  employ  workers  who  have  quitted  another  employer  in  a 
manner  unjustifiable  or  illegal,  refusing  systematically  all  interfer- 
ence by  workers  in  the  management  of  the  factory  and  especially  in 
regard  to  the  employment  and  discharge  of  workers,  and  to  conform 
fully  to  lockout  decisions  of  the  committee. 

One  of  the  most  recent  conflicts  between  the  employees  and  the 
employers'  associations  resulted  in  the  victory  of  the  former.  This 
was  in  regard  to  the  amendments  to  the  working  law  which  were 
passed  in  December,  1907,  and  where  the  workers'  unions,  against  the 
strong  protest  of  the  manufacturers,  had  the  laAV  modified  so  that 
after  January  1,  1910,  women  can  not  work  over  ten  hours  a  day, 
instead  of  eleven,  thus  reducing  the  maximum  weekly  factory  hours 
to  sixty,  the  substituting  of  twelve  for  thirteen  as  the  legal  hours  per 
day  in  cases  of  temporary  overtime  permitted  in  certain  cases,  and 
other  provisions  along  the  same  line. 


TEXTILES  FROM  COTTON  WASTE, 


KILLFUL    METHODS    OF    UTILIZATION    BY    MANUFACTURERS  IMPROVED 

MACHINERY  REQUIRED  BY  THE  MILLS. 

In  Germany  the  manufacture  of  cotton  waste  into  a  great  variety 
>f  finished  products  is  quite  an  industry.  Not  only  do  the  mills  manu- 
'acture  the  waste  from  German  cotton  mills,  but  they  also  import 
:otton  waste  from  all  sections  of  the  globe  and,  in  many  cases,  ship 
^he  manufactured  article  back  to  the  country  from  which  the  waste 
7as  bought.  The  cotton  waste  imported  is  listed  as  cotton  linters,  or 
iis  waste  from  cotton  mills.  The  following  table  shows  the  import  of 
ptton  linters  into  Germany  for  the  year  1007: 


Country. 

Pounds. 

Country. 

Pounds. 

i'nited  States..    . 

38,069,912 
14,450,306 
2,680,284 
888.653 
914,440 

Great  Britain.   

1,128,228 
2,249,402 

;ritish  India  ..   ._  _  

All  other  countries.-  — 

!hma..  -  -  -  - 

Total  

'utch  India-   _      .                 __.  _ 

60,381,225 

Jgypt  

Of  the  linters  reexported,  6,158,417  pounds,  the  bulk  goes  to  waste 
aills  in  northern  Austria  and  the  remainder  to  other  neighboring 
ountries. 

The  waste  from  cotton  mills — sweeps,  flyings,  strips,  etc. — imported 
Qto  Germany  for  1907,  and  the  cotton-mill  waste  exported  to  other 
;ountries  during  the  same  period,  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


Country. 

Imported. 

Exported. 

Country. 

Imported. 

Exported. 

rnited  States  

Pounds. 

3,409,373 
16,179,564 

4,063,294 

1,025,742 
13,530,136 
13,906,358 

1,551,836 

Pounds. 
6,083,701 
14,540,449 
4,843,510 

"'5^32^014' 
912,456 
279,026 

i 

Japan  

Poundfi. 

721,5!>0 
10,946.607 
4,547,513 
2,497,347 

Pounds. 

ustria    

Netherlands-   . 

15,718,928 
1,494,092 
3,989,922 

elgium  

ritish  India  

ranee.   .  . 

Switzerland  

All  other  countries  

Total  

reat  Britain.       .  _ 

72,379,360 

52,994,098 

taly  

It  will  be  noticed  that  several  countries  both  ship  waste  to  and  im- 
)ort  waste  from  Germany.  France  and  Austria,  for  instance,  ship 
v^aste  to  Germany  from  various  places,  while  Bohemian  waste  mills 
mport  waste  from  the  German  mills  near  at  hand,  and  Alsace- 
Lorraine  ships  some  waste  over  the  French  border.  Germany  buys 
ill  kinds  of  cotton  waste  from  the  United  States,  but  especially  soft 
vaste,  such  as  sweepings,  flyings,  and  strips.  Some  of  this  goes  into 
he  manufacture  of  coarse  towels,  scrubbing  cloths,  dish  rags,  blankets, 
'tc,  which  is  then  exported  back  to  the  United  Sl:ates  or  to  the  Phil- 
ppines. 

54552—08  4  49 


50 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


COTTON-WASTE  CLOTH  VIGOGNE  YARN. 

Ten  samples  of  this  class  of  goods,  which  are  made  from  America 
waste  manufactured  in  Germany  and  then  sold  in  the  United  Statej 
are  transmitted  with  this  report.  In  some  of  these  articles  bot 
warp  and  filling  are  made  from  cotton  waste,  while  in  others  tl 
warp  will  be  jute,  coarse  linen,  or  other  strong  material  and  the  fillin 
cotton  w^aste.  The  yarns  employed  are  usually  between  number  A 
and  number  G,  while  in  some  of  the  finer  grades  the  waste  yarns  usCi 
run  up  to  8s  or  10s  or  even  higher  where  mixed  with  cotton,  TY\ 
cotton  waste  shipped  by  Germany  to  the  United  States  is  mainly  haii 
waste  for  use  in  machine  wiping,  etc. 

"  Vigogne  "  yarn  might  also  be  considered  in  connection  with  co 
ton- waste  spinning.  This  also  is  an  important  industry,  and  there  ai 
over  600,000  spindles  making  vigogne  yarn  in  Saxony.  The  re; 
vigogne  yarn  consists  of  wool  mixed  with  cotton  and  the  proportic, 
varies  from  20  per  cent  wool  and  80  per  cent  cotton  to  2  per  cei 
wool  and  08  per  cent  cotton,  and  is  used  in  cheap  hosiery,  in  imitatic 
wool  cloths,  etc.  In  place  of  the  wool,  very  often  wool  waste  is  use 
either  in  whole  or  in  part.  The  less  wool  used  the  greater  the  profi; 
where  it  resembles  wool  when  finished.  A  large  portion  of  this  s*; 
called  vigogne  yarn  now  made  in  Saxony  is  not  really  vigogne,  bi| 
is  imitation  yarn  and  in  this  case  cotton  waste  is  substituted  for  tl; 
wool  and  this  is  manufactured  on  wool  cards  and  worked  so  as  to  loci 
like  the  genuine  material,  unless  inspected  at  short  range.  The  pr< 
portion  of  cotton,  of  cotton  waste,  and  of  wool  (where  this  is  used 
varies  according  to  the  grade  of  material  desired  and  is  kept  a  clo! 
secret  by  the  respective  manufacturers.  It  is,  however,  simply  ^ 
question  of  using  the  cheapest  mixing  that  will  obtain  the  particuk 
result  desired. 

In  the  ordinary  waste  spinning  where  not  over  No.  6s  is  spun  thei| 
is  ordinarily  used  the  two-card  system,  while  for  higher  numbers,  an 
always  for  vigogne,  the  three-card  system  has  to  be  employed.  Wit 
this  exception  the  manufacture  of  vigogne  or  imitation  yarn  do(i 
not  materially  differ  from  the  ordinary  waste  processes.  | 

METHODS  OF  MANUFACTURE.  I 

In  the  following  notes  a  few  brief  details  in  regard  to  the  mam 
f  acture  of  waste  as  carried  on  in  German  waste  mills,  cost  and  produ', 
(ion  of  the  machines  ordinarily  used,  and  the  wages  paid  operative 
are  given.  . 

There  are  two  main  kinds  of  cotton  waste :  ( 1 )  Hard  waste,  or  was 
in  which  there  is  some  twist,  is  made  on  the  spinning  and  subsequei] 
machines,  and  consists  of  cop  bottoms,  reel  waste,  twister  waste,  etc 
hard  waste  has  to  be  run  through  some  machine  to  tear  it  up  and  tal 
out  the  twist  in  this  way  before  it  can  be  reworked;  it  is  grade 
according  to  cleanness,  whether  white  or  colored,  and  according  i 
the  machine  on  which  it  is  made;  (2)  soft  waste,  which  includes  a 
waste  of  the  machines  up  to  the  spinning  frame,  such  as  motes,  cai 
fly,  flat  and  cylinder  strips,  clearer  waste,  clean  sweepings,  oily  wast 
etc. 

There  are  two  main  systems  of  machinery  generally  used  in  tl: 
manufacture  of  cotton  waste — the  condenser  and  the  coiler.   The  fir 


GEKMANY  TEXTILES  FROM  COTTON  WASTE. 


51 


resembles  the  wool  system  and  the  latter  is  more  similar  to  the  cotton 
system  of  manufacture.    The  condenser  is  best  for  soft  yarn  and 
gives  a  soft  and  full  yarn  that  can  be  used  for  warp  and  filling  for 
'  blankets,  flannelettes,  cleaning  cloths,  quilts,  etc.    The  coiler  is  best 
'  for  waste  yarns  that  are  intended  to  be  harder  twisted  and  to  be  used 
for  filling  for  towels,  cloth  to  be  printed  or  dyed,  for  twine,  rope,  etc. 
The  condenser  system  is  the  one  used  in  the  majority  of  the  German 
waste  mills.    Here,  as  elsewhere,  some  regular  cotton  mills  manufac- 
ture their  waste  into  coarse  yarns,  but,  except  in  the  case  of  very  large 
'  mills,  this  is  not  usually  to  be  advised,  for  waste  manufacturing  is 
I  separate  branch  of  the  industry  and  to  get  the  best  results  it  should 
36  in  a  mill  by  itself. 

PURCHASE  OF  COTTON  WASTE  MACHINERY  EMPLOYED. 

The  German  waste  working  mills  buy  cotton  waste  by  sample  from 
Grerman  waste  dealers,  who  in  turn  buy  from  the  German  cotton  mills 
jT  from  waste  dealers  in  other  countries.  The  terms  of  commission 
md  discount  seem  to  vary  according  to  the  country  from  which 
brought,  and  also  according  to  the  individual  dealer,  there  being  no 
uniformly  observed  rules.  Dealers  in  French  waste  usually  give  2 
per  cent  discount,  thirty  days.  From  England  the  terms  are  the  same 
for  cotton  waste  as  for  cotton  yarn  and  are  according  to  the  Man- 
chester terms  of  sale.  Dealers  in  American  waste  stated  that  their 
isual  commission  was  three-fourths  to  1  per  cent,  sometimes  up  to 
per  cent,  and  that  drafts  are  made,  with  bill  of  lading  attached, 
Por  three  months,  nineteen  days'  sight. 

In  Germany  the  Avaste  from  the  mills  does  not  usually  have  to  be 
transported  far  and  is  shipped  in  sacks  weighing  some  25  kilos  (1 
dlo=2.2  pounds).  From  other  countries  the  waste  comes  in  pressed 
3ales  weighing  200  to  800  kilos.  From  the  United  States  the  waste 
3ales  are  of  the  same  size  as  cotton  bales,  about  500  pounds.  Usually 
>  or  T  per  cent  is  deducted  for  covering. 

In  the  usual  cotton-waste  mill  in  Germ.any  using  the  condenser 
ystem  the  following  machines  are  employed:  (1)  Opener  (Baum- 
volloffner)  ;  (2)  picker  (Baumwoll-Schlagmaschine)  ;  (3)  double 
tutomatic  waste  cards  ( Automatischer  Zweipeigneur-Krempelsatz)  ; 
,'4)  waste  mules  ( Streichgarn-Self actor ) . 

In  addition  some  have  reels  or  other  machines  for  putting  the  yarn 
ip  in  special  shapes.  Instead  of  the  mule  some  use  a  tubular  cop 
Inachine,  and  others  use  a  waste  ring  spinning  frame  for  making 
7arn  for  specific  purposes. 

OPENER  AND  PICKER  MACHINES. 

In  the  type  of  opener  ordinarily  used,  a  drawing  of  which  has 
jeen  sent,  the  waste  is  first  mixed  by  hand,  very  often  white  waste 
Tom  a  wadding  mill  being  mixed  with  dirty  sweepings  to  lighten 
ip  the  color,  or  other  mixing  made  as  desired,  according  to  the  grade 
>i  yarn  to  be  produced.  This  is  then  fed  into  the  spout,  and  after 
>eing  partially  cleaned  falls  off  the  moving  lattice  at  the  other  end, 
he  cleaning  being  done  by  horizontal  revolving  blades,  made  very 
imilar  to  the  ordinary  Crighton  opener  for  cotton.  One  size  of 
his  opener  is  about  55  by  105  inches,  weighs  about  4,850  pounds,  and 
ells  for  about  $400 ;  the  other  size  is  about  TO  by  150  inches,  weighs 


52 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


8,800  pounds,  and  sells  for  about  $500.  There  is  a  double  opener 
which  is  about  TO  by  315  inches,  weighs  some  17,000  pounds,  and  cost 
about  $1,050,  but  is  similar  in  its  action  to  the  others.  In  some  o: 
the  openers  the  waste  is  pushed  in  through  the  spout  by  hand  anc 
in  others  it  is  spread  by  hand  onto  a  movable  lattice,  which  feed 
it  into  the  machine.  The  driving  pulley  is  usually  run  at  1,00( 
revolutions  per  minute. 

In  a  combined  opener  and  picker,  illustration  of  which  is  for 
warded,  the  cotton  as  it  comes  from  the  opener  is  laid  on  a  lattice 
which  feeds  it  into  the  picker,  where  it  is  fanned  and  beaten.  Th 
machine  is  similar  in  its  general  action  to  the  regular  cotton-mil 
picker,  but  instead  of  a  beater  with  blades  a  cylinder  is  here  used! 
covered  with  short  projecting  spikes.  The  cotton  is  not  rolled  intd 
a  lap,  but  is  run  up  a  moving  lattice  and  allowed  to  fall  to  the  floor; 
whence  it  is  then  carried  to  the  hopper  of  the  automatic  double  card 
as  described  later.  The  picker  is  about  68  inches  wide  (for  a  work 
ing  width  of  40  inches)  and  160  inches  long,  weighs  about  6,80(! 
pounds,  and  costs  $650.  The  driving  pulley  is  usually  run  at  abou 
1,000  revolutions  per  minute.  It  takes  about  3  horsepower  to  oper 
ate,  and  has  a  production  of  3,300  pounds  per  day  of  ten  hours.  Th 
combined  opener  and  picker  in  question  has  the  same  width  as  th 
single  opener,  is  about  19  feet  long,  weighs  about  14,500  pounds: 
and  costs  $1,125  at  Chemnitz.  One  workman  is  required  per  machinei 
and  gets  36  to  48  cents  a  day. 

WASTE  CARDS. 

One  of  the  largest  Saxon  machine  firms  and  one  that  ships  a  gooc 
deal  of  machinery  to  the  United  States  is  at  Chemnitz.  One  of  it' 
specialties  is  waste  cards.  These,  as  shown  in  illustrations  forwarded 
are  simply  modifications  of  the  woolen-card  system.  For  making 
cotton-waste  yarns  up  to  No.  4s  this  firm  recommends  the  double  card 
The  action  of  the  cards  is  clearly  shown  in  the  catalogue  illustratioi 
and  requires  little  explanation.  The  cotton  from  the  breaker  card  i 
conveyed  in  an  open  lap  to  the  roving  card,  where  it  is  separated  int( 
slivers  and  wound  up  into  numerous  adjacent  sections  or  cheeses  on 
four  lap  sticks.  The  two  cards  work  together,  and  one  girl  (usuallj 
at  48  cents  a  day)  is  the  only  help  employed.  The  width  is  usually  6i 
inches,  and  the  total  weight  of  the  two  cards  is  42,000  pounds.  Thii 
machine  makes  40  slivers  on  each  lap,  or  160  slivers  total,  and  the  pro 
duction  per  ten  hours  is  550  to  660  pounds,  or  enough  to  supply  somd 
600  mule  spindles.  The  cost  is  $3,350  at  Chemnitz;  seapacldng  ' 
per  cent  extra.  The  freight  on  machinery  from  Chemnitz  to  Ham 
burg  is  2.5  marks  per  100  kilos  (59^  cents  per  220  pounds),  and  fron 
Hamburg  to  New  York  is  $5  per  metric  ton.  Insurance  is  50  pfennig,! 
per  100  marks  (12  cents  per  $23.80  hundredweight). 

For  making  cotton-waste  yarns  between  No.  4s  and  8s  the  firm  rec 
ommends  a  one-comber  system.  This  set  of  cards  is  also  65  inche; 
width,  it  weighs  complete  36,000  pounds,  and  costs  at  Chemnitz  $2,856 
It  makes  140  slivers  total  on  the  four  laps  and  produces  350  to  40( 
pounds  of  Nos.  4s  to  8s  yarn  in  ten  hours,  or  enough  to  supply  600  t< 
650  mule  spindles, 

For  yarns  Nos.  6s  to  12s  the  three-card  system  becomes  necessary 
and  especially  for  vigogne  yarn,  which  is  very  often  made  withou 
woolj  using  only  cotton  and  cotton  waste.   The  three-card  systen 


I 

I  GERMANY  TEXTILES  FROM  COTTON  WASTE.  53 

weighs  complete  45,000  pounds  and  costs  $3,570  at  Chemnitz.  The 
)ro(i  action  on  Nos.  6s  to  12s  is  275  to  330  pounds  in  ten  hours,  or 
nough  to  supply  700  mule  spindles.  There  are  140  slivers  to  the  four 
aps  and  the  width  is  usually  65  inches,  though  any  width,  number  of 
aps  up  to  6,  or  any  number  of  slivers  to  the  lap,  can  be  made  as 
lesired. 

i  TANDEM  THREE-CARD  PROCESS  HOPPER  FEEDER. 

! 

A  tandem  arrangement  of  a  three-card  set  is  made  by  a  manu- 
facturer at  Verdau.  These  cards  are  65  inches  wide  and  make  120 
livers  at  a  time.  The  cost  at  Verdau,  packing  not  included,  is  $2,737. 
Running  on  No.  6s  the  production  per  day  of  ten  hours  is  given  as 
:96.  pounds.  Waste  mills  using  this  system  at  Verdau  employ  one 
jirl  at  48  cents  a  day  to  run  the  set. 

To  consume  the  production  of  such  a  card  set  there  are  necessary 
wo  self-actors  of  300  spindles,  each  with  gage  of  1.9  inches.  The 
)rice  of  such  a  self-actor  as  made  at  Verdau  is  $857  at  that  place,  and 

0  attend  such  a  self-actor  two  girls  are  employed  at  48  cents  each. 
?or  every  1,000  to  1,500  mule  spindles  a  spinner  is  necessary  at  $1.19 
|l  day. 

1  The  waste  cards  are  not  supplied  with  laps,  but  are  connected 
1  direct  to  a  hopper  feeder.  The  ordinary  hopper  feeder  does  not  feed 
I  ^venly^  being  affected  by  the  weight  of  material  in  the  hopper  and 

)ther  causes,  and  to  obtain  an  even  yarn  from  the  card  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  uniform  feeding,  so  some  intermediate  weight-regulat- 
ng  apparatus  must  be  used.  This  is  especially  necessary  for  the  so- 
•alled  automatic  card  sets;  for  the  automatic  supply  of  material 
Tom  one  card  to  another  it  is  essential  to  have  an  exactly  regular 
iii-eeding  of  the  first  card.  Formerly  the  card  was  fed  by  hand,  and 
f",his  method  is  still  used  in  a  good  many  mills  with 'old  machinery. 
!  The  operative  weighs  a  certain  amount  and  spreads  it  by  hand 
)ver  a  certain  space  on  the  feed  apron.  The  weight-regulating  de- 
/ice  now  used  carries  out  just  the  handwork  described.  Formerly 
iie  evenness  of  the  yarn  varied  according  to  the  conscientiousness 
md  ability  of  the  operative,  while  the  mechanical  device  works  auto- 
iiatically  and  does  the  work  more  exactly  and  at  less  cost.  This 
^veighing  device  is  made  in  different  shapes  and  styles  by  different 
irms,  but  the  method  of  all  is  similar. 

In  using  weighing  devices  on  this  machine  made  at  Chemnitz  the 
:aw  material  is  drawn  out  of  a  hopper  by  the  usual  spiked  lattice, 
3ut  instead  of  falling  onto  the  feed  apron  it  drops  into  a  weighing 
rough.  The  two  bottom  plates  of  this  trough  are  hinged  and  are 
Dalanced  so  that  they  only  open  when  a  certain  fixed  weight  has  been 
nipplied.  As  soon  as  the  correct  amount  has  been  dropped  into  the 
weighing  trough  the  spiked  lattice  is  automatically  stopped,  the  two 
bottom  plates  drop  down,  and  the  waste  is  shed  out  on  the  feed  apron, 
where  it  is  immediately  spread  out  evenly  by  a  swinging  presser 
arrangement  and  feeds  on  into  the  card.  As  this  moves  forward 
che  bottoms  of  the  weighing  trough  close  up,  the  spiked  lattice  starts 
:lelivery  again,  and  the  process  is  repeated  as  before.  This  apparatus 
:*an  be  adjusted  so  that  the  speed  of  the  feed  apron,  the  weight  of  the 
material  to  be  put  in  the  weighing  trough,  and  the  frequency  of  its 


54 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


emptying,  can  be  arranged  according  to  the  different  materials  to; 
be  worked.    The  attendant  has  only  to  keep  the  hopper  supplied. 

WASTE  SPINNING  ON  MULES. 

The  waste  mule  differs  from  the  regular  mule  used  in  cotton  mills 
in  that  there  are  no  drafting  rolls.  The  laps,  consisting  of  24  or 
more  separate  slivers  wound  on  a  lap  rod,  are  taken  direct  from  the 
waste  cards  and  laid  on  the  back  of  the  machine,  whence  they  run 
under  one  self- weighted  roller  direct  to  the  spindles.  The  speed  of 
spindles  is  necessarily  varied  according  to  the  strength  and  quality 
of  the  material  supplied. 

The  production  depends  so  much  on  the  mixing  and  kinds  of  waste 
used  that  figures  as  to  this  have  small  value.  The  wages  also  vary 
at  each  mill.  At  a  waste  mill  I  visited  at  Zittau,  in  Saxony,  I 
found  that  they  used  mostly  sweepings,  card  fly,  and  similar  ma- 
terial and  mixed  in  some  white  waste  from  a  wadding  mill  to  bring 
up  the  color.  The  mules  used  were  500  spindles  each,  and  on  No.  6s 
waste  yarn  they  were  doffed  about  six  times  a  day,  getting  26^  to 
33  pounds  at  a  doff  or  176  to  198  pounds  a  day.  For  every  500 
spindles  there  were  required  one  spinner,  one  piecer,  and  one  creeler. 
The  spinner  was  paid  on  No.  6s  86  cents  per  200  pounds,  the  piecer 
received  70  per  cent  as  much,  and  the  creeler  50  per  cent  as  much. 
The  spinner  therefore  made  about  78  cents  a  day,  the  piecer  54  cents, 
and  the  creeler  40  cents.  This  was  on  low-grade  waste.  In  most  of 
the  mills  I  found  that  there  were  used  a  piecer  and  creeler  to  every 
500  spindles,  but  that  the  spinner  looked  after  three  to  four  mules, 
usually  about  1,500  spindles.  Few  of  the  mules  for  waste  spinning 
are  made  over  500  spindles,  and  330  spindles  seem  to  be  a  common 
size.  In  many  places  the  operatives  are  paid  by  the  day  or  by  the 
hour,  and  this  is  probably  due  to  the  impossibility  of  paying  by 
production  where  many  different  kinds  of  mixings  are  used.  Most 
of  the  vigogne  (the  imitation  yarn  vigogne)  mills  pay  by  the  hour 
and  the  spinner  gets  95  cents  to  $1.19  a  day,  and  the  others  in  pro- 
portion. At  one  mill  at  Crimmitschau,  where  there  are  many 
vigogne  yarn  mills,  one  manufacturer  gave  me  his  prices  as  being 
30  pfennigs  an  hour  for  the  spinner  (71  cents  a  day),  while  the  girls 
who  acted  as  piecer  and  creeler  got  only  20  and  15  pfennigs  an  hour 
(48  and  36  cents  a  day,  respectively),  but  this  is  a  little  lower  than 
usual. 

Prices  paid  for  reeling  vary,  but  for  No.  6s  cotton-waste  yarn  the 
usual  price  is  one  pfennig  per  English  pound.  [Pictures  of  all  the 
machines  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  part  of  the  report  and  samples 
of  various  textile  fabrics  made  from  cotton  waste  and  linters  are 
filed  for  inspection  by  the  textile  trade  at  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 

A    NEW   RING   SPINNING   FRAME   FOR   COTTON  WASTE. 

Cotton  waste  is  usually  spun  on  the  mule  because  the  material  con- 
sists of  short  and  uneven  length  fibers  and  could  not  be  spun  on  the 
ring  frame  without  excessive  twist.  To  spin  on  the  mules,  however, 
is  more  expensive  than  to  spin  on  the  ring  frame,  and  there  have  been, 
many  efforts  made  to  adapt  the  ring  frame  to  fulfill  the  functions 
of  a  mule  and  yet  retain  its  cheapness  of  operation.    One  such. 


GEKMANY  TEXTILES  FKOM  COTTON  WASTE. 


55 


I  iaptation  of  the  ring  frame  has  been  patented  by  a  firm  at  Geb- 
eiler,  in  Alsace,  and  is  being  introduced  into  the  cotton-waste  mills. 
I  one  mill  where  I  saw  this  machine  in  operation  the  manufacturer 
as  enthusiastic  as  to  its  merits.  The  special  advantage  of  this 
achine  is  that  it  makes  a  cleaner  and  more  even  yarn  than  the 
•dinary  ring  frame  and  permits  of  a  higher  draft.  It  can  not  take 
le  place  of  the  mule  for  very  soft  spun  yarns,  but  for  many  pur- 
)ses,  especially  for  making  warp  yarns  to  be  used  in  scouring  cloths, 
irpets,  etc.,  the  yarn  from  this  machine  is  as  good  as  that  obtained 
om  the  mule,  and  at  much  less  cost. 

This  machine  is  made  in  two  styles.  The  first  is  shown  in  fig.  1, 
ith  a  detail  view  of  the  rolls  and  the  roller  stand  in  fig.  2.  This 


Fig 


liiny  spinning  frame  vvitli  drawing 


iffers  mainly  from  the  ordinary  frame  in  the  introduction  of  a 
nadelwalze  "  or  needle  roller  between  the  middle  and  front  roller 
nd  this  parallels  and  cleans  the  yarn  as  it  is  being  drafted.  The 
econd  style  is  shown  in  fig.  3  where,  in  addition  to  the  last-named 
ystem,  patented  by  Perrin,  there  is  added  an  intermittent  second 
[raft  arrangement  that  is  patented  by  Meyer. 

The  maker  calls  this  a  "  Ringspinnmaschine  mit  Streckwerk,"  that 
3,  a  "  Ring  spinning  frame  with  drawing."  He  claims  that  all  mix- 
iires  of  textiles,  such  as  cotton,  wool,  or  silk  waste,  noils  or  short 
ibers  of  ramie  or  jute,  etc.,  can  be  spun  on  this  machine  and  that  the 
esulting  yarn  is  equal  to  any  made  on  the  mule.  With  Louisiana 
otton  the  arrangement  of  the  rolls  permits  a  draft  up  to  IGs  for 


56 


COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUKOPE. 


single  roving.  Nos.  25s  to  28s  yarn  can  be  spun  direct  from  No.  1.6 
hank  rove,  and  in  consequence  of  such  arrangement  one  process  ol 
fly  frames  can  be  omitted  and  the  production  of  the  cards  be  mucb 
increased.  The  yarns  are  much  cleaner  than  if  made  on  a  regulai  cost 
spinning  frame,  owing  to  the  cleaning  action  of  the  needle  roller 
This  roller  does  not  lap  up  and  needs  no  cleaning. 


0 


MECHANISM  OF  ROLLERS. 


On  this  machine,  with  the  arrangement  shown  in  fig.  3,  the  first 
draft  is  made  between  the  fluted  roll  A  with  its  pressing  roll  A' 
and  the  stretching  roll  3,  with  its  pressing  roll  3,  and  between  these 
two  is  the  needle  roller  H.  A  second  draft  operating  similarly  to 
the  carriage  draft  on  a  mule  is  produced  in  the  following  way 
Between  the  stretching  roller  3  and  the  spindle  7  there  is  a  revolving 
through-going  roller  provided  with  two  cam-like  projections  4,  which 
serve  to  move  up  and  dow^n  on  each  revolution  of  the  roller  the  press- 


FiG.  2. — Rolls  and  roller  stand  of  ring  frame. 

ing  roll  2.  When  this  roll  is  up  the  twist  is  specially  transferred  to 
the  thin  place  in  the  yarn  showm  by  the  figure  9.  When,  however, 
the  pressing  roll  is  on  the  roller  1  then  the  latter  develops  a  draft 
between  it  and'  the  stretching  roller  3.  This  draft  affects  especially 
the  thicker  places  shown  by  the  figure  8,  where  there  is  less  twist  than 
at  the  places  9,  so  these  thicker  places  are  twisted  together  and  the 
yarn  becomes  uniform.  As  the  two  drafts  are  multiplied  by  each 
other  a  considerably  higher  total  draft  is  thereby  obtained  than  on 
any  other  spinning  frame. 

The  maker  claims  for  this  machine  the  following  advantages  over 
the  mule :  (1)  The  manufacture  of  strong  cops  up  to  8.5  inches  length, 
and  about  1.50  inches  diameter;  (2) large  draft  whereby  the  roving 
can  be  made  heavier  and  a  larger  production  thereby  obtained  on  the 
card;  (3)  uniformly  regular  draft  as  the  fibers,  w^hether  long  or 
short,  are  guided  and  kept  together  by  the  wires  of  the  small  needle 
roller  shown  as  a  in  fig.  3;  (4)  regulation  of  the  drafting  accord 


GERMANY  TEXTILES  FROM  COTTON  WASTE. 


57 


Qg  to  the  length  of  llie  fibers;  (5)  the  production  of  one  of  tliese 
ling  frames  of  200  spindles  is  equal  to  that  of  a  mule  with  330 
pindles  and  occupies  only  one-fourth  the  floor  space;  (6)  the  Inboi- 
;:ost  is  much  cheaper,  as  to  attend  a  ring  frame  of  280  spindles  there 
llels  only  required  two  girls ;  (7)  the  consumption  of  power  by  the  frame 
s  nearly  30  per  cent  less  than  that  of  the  niule. 

As  used  in  the  waste  mills  this  frame  is  creeled  with  cheeses  or 
lections  of  single  ends  taken  direct  from  the  waste  card.    One  such 
iiJ;heese  is  shoAvn  at  M  in  fig.  3. 


Fig.  3.— Intermittent  second  draft  arrangement  of  ring  frame. 

The  present  price  of  this  280-spindle  frame,  with  100  mm.  (3.94 
inches)  gage,  is  $1,904,  with  extra  6  per  cent  for  sea  packing. 

TUBULAR  COP  MACHINE. 

The  tubular  cop  machine,  called  in  Germany  a  "  Schlauchkops- 
Spinnmaschine,"  is  a  machine  that  is  used  for  making  coarse  yarns 
from  cotton  waste,  cotton,  wool,  hair,  etc.,  and  obviates  the  necessity 
of  using  the  expensive  self-actor. 

Like  the  ring  spinning  frame  for  cotton  waste,  previously  de- 
scribed, this  machine  spins  direct  from  the  waste  card  without  inter- 
mediate process,  but  the  product  of  this  machine  is  cops  for  imme- 
diate use  in  shuttles  in  weaving  carpets,  scouring  cloths,  etc.,  while 
the  product  of  the  other  was  warp  yarns. 


58  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 

Figs.  4,  5,  G,  and  7  are  taken  from  the  catalogue  of  a  Chemnitz 
nianufacturer,  the  first  showing  the  complete  machine.  The  opera- 
tion is  as  follows:  The  single  roving  cheeses  from  the  waste  cards 


are  laid  m  the  round  metal  cans  shown  as  K  in  fig.  5.  The  lids  of 
these  cans  can  be  lifted,  and  are  made  fast  to  the  can  simply  by  press- 
ing down.    The  inner  end  of  the  roAang  is  drawn  from  the  cheese 


GERMANY  TEXTILES  FROM  COTTON  WASTE. 


59 


that  has  been  placed  in  the  can,  through  the  hole  in  the  middle  of  the 
3an  lid,  and  is  led  upward  over  a  roller,  through  a  swinging  thread 
^uide  /,  to  the  funnel  in  which  the  yarn  is  to  wind  itself  in  cone 
shape.  The  tin  cans  K  are  fastened  on  vertical  spindles,  which  are 
put  into  rapid  revolution  by  belt  from  the  drum  under  the  machine. 
In  this  way  the  roving  that  is  being  drawn  out  of  the  tin  cans  gets 
the  necessary  twist.  The  spindles  are  four  cornered  and  are  driven 
by  means  of  small  bevel  gears  on  a  horizontal  side  shaft.  As  the 
?op  grows  it  is  steadily  lifted  higher  out  of  the  funnel  whicli  forms 
the  cop  shape,  and  when  the  cop  has  reached  full  size  the  spindle  is 
automatically  stopped.    Each  can  and  the  spindle  can  be  placed  in  or 


Fig.  G.  Fig.  7. 

Details  of  operations  of  tubular  cop  machine. 

out  of  position  by  a  disengaging  apparatus  separately  of  the  others. 
The  brake  d  holds  the  spindle  when  disengaging,  so  that  the  thread 
(Joes  not  get  more  twist  owing  to  the  can  continuing  to  run.  By  press- 
ing on  the  lever  h  each  can  is  placed  in  position  with  the  spindle,  and 
by  lifting  the  lever  the  cans  come  immediately  to  a  stop. 

VARIATIONS  IN  TYPES  COST  OF  VERDAU  MACHINE. 

The  roving  cans  are  sometimes  used  without  lids,  as  shown  in  figure 
6,  where  the  roving  cheeses  work  separately.  In  this  case  the  j^arn 
is  drawn  through  a  movable  thread  guide.  The  tubular  cop  machine 
can  also  be  used  for  twisting,  when  spinning,  by  means  of  a  double 
can,  as  shown  in  fig.  7.  The  cans  themselves  can  be  made  in  many 
different  shapes,  and  the  firm  in  Chemnitz  has  patented  a  number  of 
such  makes  for  different  purposes.    The  swinging  of  the  thread  guide 


60 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


can  be  arranged  to  give  any  desired  crossing  of  the  yarn;  the  yarn 
can  be  spun  with  right  or  left  hand  twist,  and  by  choosing  funnels 
that  have  been  slitted  in  the  proper  manner  the  cop  can  be  wound 
either  right  or  left  handed.  Finished  cops  are  laid  on  the  top  of  the 
machine.  All  movable  parts  of  the  machine  are  sheltered  from  dirt 
and  from  contact  wdth  the  working  girls  by  removable  covers.  The 
machine  is  iigually  made  with  cans  on  both  sides,  but  is  sometimes 
made  one  sided,  so  as  to  be  placed  against  the  Avail.  The  usual  spin- 
dle gage  is  333  millimeters  (about  13^  inches),  so  that  large  cheeses 
of  300  millimeters  (11.8  inches)  diameter  can  be  used  in  the  cans  and 
the  loss  of  time  occasioned  by  frequent  replenishing  with  smaller 
cheeses  avoided.  The  width  of  such  a  machine  as  made  by  the  Chem- 
nitz manufacturer  is  1,800  millimeters  (about  71  inches),  and  the 
length  is  equal  to  the  number  of  spindles  on  a  side.  For.  yarns  to  be 
spun  finer  than  No.  1  English — that  is  to  say,  for  Nos.  3  or  4 — cans 
of  about  200  millimeters  (7.8  inches)  diameter  and  narrower  spindle 
gage  are  substituted.  The  power  required  is  about  one  horsepower 
per  25  spindles.  On  No.  1  yarn  the  production  per  spindle  is  about 
12  pounds  per  day  of  eleven  hours,  and  one  girl  runs  12  spindles. 

A  firm  at  Verdau,  Saxony,  gives  the  cost  of  a  60-spindle  tubular 
cop  machine  at  $952,  to  which  has  to  be  added  10  per  cent  for  sea- 
packing  charges.  Such  a  machine  is  stated  by  this  firm  to  give  a  pro- 
duction of  770  pounds  of  yarn  per  ten-hour  day,  wUh  6  female  oper- 
atives, and  to  be  the  correct  number  of  spindles  to  handle  the  delivery 
from  a  double  waste  card  making  4  laps  of  80  threads  each. 

Tubular  cops  can  be  made  on  these  machines  up  to  60  millimeters 
(2.36  inches)  diameter  and  up  to  300  millimeters  (11.8  inches)  in 
length.  These  tubular  cops  are  firmly  made  and  when  placed  in  the 
shuttle  require  no  spindle,  as  the  cop  entirely  fills  the  shuttle,  and  the 
thread  is  drawn  out  from  the  inside. 

THE  COILER  SYSTEM. 

As  has  been  shown  in  the  foregoing,  the  condenser  system  of  waste 
manufacture  uses  an  opener,  picker,  automatic  double  or  triple  card 
set  with  hopper  feed,  and  mule.  The  coiler  system  is  not  adopted  as 
much  as  the  condenser  system  in  Germany,  but  the  machines  used  are 
as  follow^s:  (1)  Opener;  (2)  picker  with  lap-making  apparatus;  (3) 
breaker  card  with  1,  2,  3,  or  4  cans;  (4)  doubler  and  lapper;  (5) 
roving  card;  (6)  mule. 

In  this  system  there  is  interposed  between  the  two  cards  a  doubler. 
This  machine  takes  the  slivers  from  some  40-card  cans  ranged  on 
cither  side  and  rolls  them  up  into  a  narrow  compact  lap.  The  breaker 
card  can  be  made  as  desired  to  coil  into  1,  2,  3,  or  4  cans,  and  these  are 
the  ones  that  go  to  the  doubler,  which  will  take  the  production  of  8 
to  10  breaker  cards.  The  lap  as  made  on  the  doubler  is  usually  one- 
half  the  width  of  the  roving  card,  and  two  are  placed  together  on 
a  lap  ro(f.  Very  often  to  secure  still  more  uniform  results  four  of 
these  laps,  forming  two  card  laps,  are  placed  behind  the  roving  card. 
The  laps  as  made  on  this  card  go  to  the  mule  as  in  the  other  system. 

The  coiler  system  has  the  advantage  of  the  condenser  system  in 
that  there  is  more  doubling  of  slivers,  and  therefore  the  resulting 
yarn  is  evener  in  grade,  and  it  also  has  the  advantage  that  any  card 
can  be  stopped  for  repairs  or  cleaning  separately.  It  has  the  dis- 
advantage, however,  of  introducing  another  machine,  which  adds  to 
the  cost  of  manufacture. 


EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES. 


BARMEN  DISTRICT. 

DETAILS  AND  VALUE  OF  OUTPUT  OF  BKAIDED  GOODS  VARIETY  OF  STYLES 

AND  PATTERNS  MANUFACTURED. 

Cotton  manufacturing,  with  its  many  ramifications  and  special 
branches,  is  probably  the  v^orld's  greatest  industry.  In  Germany 
each  special  branch  tends  to  concentrate  in  some  particular  section 
and  around  some  particular  town.  Thus  Chemnitz  is  known  for 
hosiery,  Plauen  for  embroidered  laces,  Gera  for  fine  dress  goods, 
Crimmitzschau  for  vigogne  yarn,  Augsburg  for  fine  spinning,  Mul- 
hausen  for  fine  weaving,  Elberfeld  for  colored  goods,  Crefeld  for  vel- 
vets, etc.  The  specialty  of  Barmen,  in  western  Germany,  and  one 
that  has  caused  it  to  be  a  familiar  household  w^ord  around  the  world, 
is  braided  work,  and  particularly  that  branch  of  braided  work  known 
as  "  Barmen  laces." 

There  are  in  and  around  this  town  some  80,000  braiding  machines, 
with  probably  3,000,000  braiding  spindles.  Of  these  machines  it  is 
estimated  that  between  8,000  and  10,000  are  devoted  to  the  specialty  of 
Barmen  lace. 

EXPORTS  OF  SPECIALTIES  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  regard  to  the  total  production  there  are  no  official  figures,  obtain- 
able, but  leading  manufacturers  estimate  the  export  of  lace  from 
Barmen  as  being  about  10,000,000  marks  (mark=23.8  cents)  a  year, 
and  that  this  is  onl}^  one-third  of  the  total  production.  The  only 
trustworthy  figures  in  regard  to  the  exports  are  those  of  the  American 
consulate  showing  the  exports  to  the  United  States. 

Considering  only  work  made  on  braiding  machines  and  ribbon 
looms  and  the  additional  exports  of  polished  "  iron  "  yarn  (the  latter 
because  sent  to  the  United  States  to  be  used  in  braided  work),  the 
exports  of  these  specialties  from  Barmen  for  the  last  five  years  have 
been  as  follows: 


Specialties. 

1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

1907. 

Barmen  lace  (torchon)  

$146,727 

$159,912 

$204,704 

$237,072 

$342,382 

Laces,  cotton,  and  other  materials  

154,367 

143,728 

212,772 

202.300 

244,391 

Hat  braids     

167,552 

226,124 

207,941 

240,975 

175,654 

Hatbands  and  ribbons      

1,202,685 

583,100 

689,200 

915,800 

990,900 

Galloons,  trimmings,  and  edgings  

190,995 

158,437 

155,152 

280,126 

361.863 

Braids  (featherstitch  and  Battenberg), 

etc.—     

423,068 

362,807 

333,747 

347,694 

320,727 

Iron  yarn  

116,572 

153,510 

172,740 

184,164 

205,136 

Total  

2,401,966 

1,786,618 

1,976,256 

2,408,131 

2,641,053 

61 


62- 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


It  will  be  seen  that  though  the  shipments  of  some  specialties  have 
declined,  that  of  Barmen  laces  has  steadily  increased  from  $146,727 
in  1903  to  $342,382  in  1907,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  tariff  and  the 
fact  that  Barmen  laces  are  being  manufactured  in  the  United  States 
in  increasing  quantities.  The  wages  paid  in  Barmen  are  lower  than 
in  the  United  States.  The  manufacturers  here  do  not  attempt  to 
run  on  standard  articles  as  much  as  is  done  in  America,  but  keep 
a  large  force  of  designers  who  are  alert  to  invent  new  designs  and  to 
catch  every  passing  whim  of  the  market.  These  designers  are  thor- 
oughly trained  in  the  excellent  German  technical  schools,  and  are 
always  hard  at  work  to  keep  just  a  step  ahead  of  their  competitors. 

ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

"  Barmen  laces  "  are  now  made  in  many  countries,  notably  Bel- 
gium, but  they  were  originated  at  Barmen,  and  this  place  was  the  first 
to  use  both  the  hand  and  the  machine  in  this  work.  The  first  ma- 
chine to  make  this  specialty  in  other  countries  seems  to  have  been 
one  patented  at  Manchester,  England,  in  1748,  but  the  making  of 
Barmen  laces  had  been  a  well-established  industry  at  Barmen  long 
before  this  period.  The  industry  was  established  in  the  United 
States  by  men  from  Barmen  and  is  to  a  certain  extent  still  carried  on 
by  them. 

In  ordinary  weaving  there  are  used  two  sets  of  threads,  one  the 
warp  and  the  other  the  filling.  In  braiding  there  is  used  only  one 
set  of  threads,  and  these  are  plaited  together  to  form  the  design 
desired.  In  the  making  of  braids  these  threads  are  plaited  or  braided 
together  in  many  different  ways,  so  that  every  thread  plaits  with 
every  other  thread,  groups  of  threads  combine  with  each  other,  braids 
join  with  other  braids,  or  parts  of  braids  plait  with  parts  of  other 
braids,  the  latter  forming  the  laces. 

Barmen  lace  is  realty  a  fancy  braid,  and  is  made  on  a  machine 
that  is  simply  an  improved  braiding  machine.  The  system  of  all 
these  braiding  machines  is  that  of  the  "  Maypole,"  and  the  main 
principles  may  be  fixed  in  the  mind  by  a  description  of  Maypole 
dances. 

PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  MAKING  BARMEN  LACE. 

Suppose  there  are  a  number  of  dancers  around  a  Maypole — say, 
16 — each  holding  an  end  of  a  ribbon  of  which  the  other  end  is  fas- 
tened to  the  top  of  the  pole.  Suppose,  first,  that  the  16  dancers  are 
divided  into  two  parties  of  8  each,  and  that  each  party  dances  around 
the  pole  in  an  opposite  direction,  each  group  following  the  path  of 
its  leader  and  taking  a  serpentine  course  so  that  every  dancer  goes  to 
the  right  and  then  to  the  left  of  alternate  dancers  of  the  other  party 
going  in  the  opposite  direction.  There  will  be  formed  at  the  top  of 
the  pole  a  "  round  "  braid  or  cord. 

Suppose,  second,  the  same  conditions  as  before,  but  that  instead  of 
continuously  circling  the  pole  in  the  same  direction  the  leader  of 
each  party,  on  the  completion  of  a  circuit  around  the  pole,  passes  com- 
pletely around  the  last  member  of  the  opposite  party  and  goes  back 
to  the  starting  point.  In  doing  so  he  follows  the  serpentine  course 
traced  by  the  opposite  party — that  is,  he  follows  the  reverse  semicir- 


GERMANY- — EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES. 


63 


1^'  cles  to  his  own  course  in  advancing.   There  will  oe  formed  at  the  top 

of  the  pole  a  "  flat  "  braid. 

Suppose,  third,  that  the  16  dancers  do  not  circle  the  pole  completely, 

but  are  divided  into  four  parties  of  4  each,  and  that  each  four  dancers 
an  interweave  among  themselves  on  their  own  special  arc  of  the  circle. 
tUAYhere  their  course  laps  that  of  the  adjoining  group  each  dancer 
«!  [passes  around  one  dancer  of  the  adjoining  group,  but  otherwise  they 
t« '  interweave  only  among  themselves.  There  will  be  formed  at  the  top 
)r  J  of  the  Maypole  a  "  stripe  "  braid. 

n      Suppose,  fourth,  that  the  dancers  are  divided  into  four  groups  of  4, 
each  interweaving  on  their  own  particular  arc  of  the  circle,  and  that 
in  this  case  their  course  does  not  overlap  that  of  any  of  their  neigh- 
bors.  They  interweave  among  themselves,  but  at  regular  or  irregular 
intervals,  at  the  direction  of  the  leader,  one  dancer  changes  places 
i  \  with  one  dancer  from  a  neighboring  group,  Aveaves  a  figure  with  them, 
a.  and  then  returns  to  his  own  group.   There  will  be  formed  at  the  top 
\  of  the  pole  a  "  Barmen  lace  "  braid. 

In  the  machine  the  place  of  the  top  of  the  Maypole  is  taken  by  the 
suspended  eye  of  a  "  braid  former,"  which  collects  all  the  threads 
i  into  one  hole,  the  places  of  the  dancers  are  taken  by  bobbins  of  thread 
)i  held  by  "  bobbin  carriers,"  and  for  the  tracks  of  the  dancers  are  sub- 
stituted grooves  cut  in  a  steel  plate. 

i  OPERATION  AND  UTILITY  OF  THE  MACHINES. 

Fig.  S  show\s  the  types  of  grooves  used  for  making  each  of  the  four 
styles  of  braids  mentioned.  Fig.  8A  shows  that  the  two  sets  of  car- 
riers going  in  opposite  directions  cross  at  regular  intervals  in  their 
serpentine  courses,  but  that  each  set  has  its  own  track,  never  gets  on 
that  of  the  other,  and  never  changes  the  direction  of  its  circling. 
Four  bobbins  is  the  least  number  that  can  be  used  to  make  this  type 
of  braid.  Four  bobbins  make  a  square  braid,  six  a  hexagonal,  eight 
an  octagonal,  etc.,  the  larger  the  number  the  more  nearly  approaching 
a  complete  circle  being  the  resulting  cord. 

Besides  cords,  this  machine  is  also  used  for  making  steam  and  water 
packings,  and  in  this  case  there  is  usually  an  extra  "  core  "  of  rubber 
or  some  other  material  run  up  through  the  middle  of  the  machine 
around  which  the  threads  interlace.  In  cases  where  it  is  desired  to 
use  a  core  of  asbestos  or  other  loose  material  the  material  is  placed 
in  a  funnel  over  the  top  of  the  braid  former  and  part  of  the  carriers 
placed  so  as  to  run  upside  down.  In  covering  whips,  telephone  wires, 
etc.,  the  machine  is  frequently  turned  on  its  side  so  that  the  core  is 
fed  through  horizontally.  For  covering  heavy  cables  there  are 
often  three  vertical  machines  arranged  one  above  the  other.  There 
is  an  infinite  number  of  combinations  and  arrangements  of  machines 
of  this  type  for  making  cords,  tubular  braids,  etc.,  or  for  covering 
work. 


64 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


VARIOUS  STYLES  OF  FLAT  BRAID  MANUFACTURED.  1» 

I  limi 

In  fig.  8B  it  will  be  seen  that  each  set  of  carriers  makes  a  circle  i 
around  the  circumference  of  the  machine  and  then  reverses  and  re-  |fji 
turns  to  its  starting  point  on  the  grooves  previously  used  by  the  other ,  jg 
set.    As  in  the  first  case,  the  carriers  do  not  interweave  among  them- : 
selves,  but  only  with  the  carriers  of  the  opposite  set.    Braid  of  this 
kind — flat  braid — can  be  made  with  as  few  as  three  carriers.    It  is 
therefore  the  simplest  braid  that  can  be  made,  as  two  threads  can  not 
be  braided,  but  only  twisted  around  each  other.    To  make  this  braid 
it  is  necessary  to  have  an  odd  number  of  spools — 3,  5,  7,  9,  etc. — and 
flat  braid  thus  made  is  usually  called  "  soutache  "  braid.    A  soutache  '  ^^]^ 


Fig.  8.— Guide  grooves  for  (A)  round  braid,  (B)  flat  braid,  (C)  stripe  braid,  and  (D)  Barmen  lace. 


braid  made  with  three  threads  is  called  a  "  plain  "  flat  braid,  and  ] 
every  thread  passes  under  and  over  every  other  thread.  '  j 

If  a  soutache  braid  is  made  with  five  spools — in  which  case  each , 
thread  passes  alternately  under  and  over  two  threads — it  is  called  a 
"  basket  "  or  "  diamond  "  braid ;  if  made  with  seven  threads — each  , 
thread  passing  alternately  over  and  under  three  threads — it  is  called  i  |( 
a  "  Hercules  "  braid.    Flat  braids  are  used  for  many  purposes,  but  ^  } 
especially  for  passementerie  and  dress  edgings  or  ornamentation. 

By  varying  the  tension  exerted  on  different  threads  there  can  be 
made  wave  braids,  rickracks,  etc.,  and  these  can  be  ornamented  with 
loops,  in  a  manner  to  be  described  later,  or  in  other  ways,  so  that 


GERMANY  EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES. 


65 


;here  are  many  special  articles  made  of  this  type  of  work.*^  A  com- 
)ination  of  the  round  and  the  flat  braid  types  makes  the  "  cord-edge 
)raid,"  which  consists  of  a  cord  running  down  the  middle  of  a  flat 
)raid.  This  is  much  used  for  covering  the  edges  of  jackets,  etc.,  the 
;wo  flat  parts  being  folded  back  on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the 
j;loth  and  leaving  the  cord  covering  the  edge. 

I  STRIPE  BRAIDS  AND  BARMEN  LACES. 

Fig.  8C  shows  the  guide  grooves  for  making  stripe  braid.  These 
jire  so  arranged  that  each  set  travels  exclusively  on  its  own  track 
Im  its  own  particular  arc  of  the  circumference  of  the  machine,  but 
ijach  track  overlaps  that  of  its  neighbor,  so  that  the  threads  carried 
)y  the  bobbins  of  one  set  twist  at  regular  intervals  around  the 
breads  carried  by  the  bobbins  of  the  neighboring  set.  The  bobbins 
!)f  each  set  Aveave  a  braid  among  themselves,  the  overlapping  being 
iirranged  only  for  the  purpose  of  joining  these  separate  braids  to- 
gether. This  is  the  reason  that  the  combined  braids  are  known  as  a 
itripe  braid.  The  separate  stripes  may  be  of  different  colors  or  ma- 
erials.  It  is  not  necessary  that  each  set  shall  have  the  same  number 
!)f  bobbins,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  usually  otherwise.  For  instance,  one 
)f  the  regular  staple  articles  in  this  line  is  made  with  66  bobbins,  ar- 
ranged on  a  machine  with  five  tracks,  carrying  12,  9,  24,  9,  and  12 
breads  each,  respectively.  A  simpler  design  is  made  with  40  bob- 
)ins  arranged  on  three  courses  of  12,  16,  and  12  bobbins,  respectively. 
5ach  top  plate  has  to  be  grooved  with  reference  to  the  number  and 
;ombination  of  spools  it  is  desired  to  employ. 

Fig.  8D  shows  the  guide  grooves  used  for  making  Barmen  lace. 
5ach  group  interweaves  on  its  own  course,  and,  as  these  do  not  over- 
ap,  the  bobbins,  if  the  switches  at  a\  etc.,  are  closed,  do  not  mingle 
vith  any  outside  bobbins.  The  switches  are  made  of  small  tongues 
)f  steel  plate,  and  some  are  pivoted  loosely  so  as  to  open  to  any  car- 
der coming  in  the  right  direction,  say  one  returning  to  its  own 
yroup,  while  others  are  controlled  so  as  to  permit  passage  only 
vhen  moved  by  special  mechanism,  and  this  opening  may  be  at 
regular  or  irregular  intervals,  as  desired. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION  OF  THE  MACHINES. 

I  Fig.  9  shows  the  regular  style  of  machines  now  used  at  Barmen  for 
naking  Barmen  lace.  This  particular  machine  is  described  as  a 
'  2  f  adige,  24  litzen  Spitzenmaschine  mit  Jacquardmaschinen  " — 
ihat  is,  a  2-thread,  24-track  lace  machine  with  Jacquard  attachment. 
There  are  24  tracks,  and  2  bobbins  are  operated  on  each  track,  so 
he  resulting  lace  has  48  threads.  A  view  of  the  top  plate,  showing 
he  guide  grooves  used  on  this  machine,  is  shown  in  fig.  10.  Using 
;hese  two  illustrations,  I  will  explain  the  main  points  of  construction 
ind  operation  of  such  machines. 

I  <^By  letting  some  of  the  carriers  run  empty,  open-work  braids  can  be  pro- 
luced.  This  method  is  extensively  used  for  making  hat  forms  out  of  glazed  or 
'iron"  yarn,  and  in  1907  Barmen,  as  shown  in  table,  shipped  to  the  United 
States  $175,654  of  this  one  specialty. 

I  ,      54552—08  5 


66 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


The  body  of  such  machines  consists  of  two  steel  plates,  which  are 
circular  in  shape,  except  where  extended  for  the  purpose  of  attaching 
the  take-off  mechanism  and  the  Jacquard  attachment.   The  plates  are 


Fig.  9. — Regular  style  of  machine  used  in  making  Barmen  lace. 


held  one  above  the  other  at  a  distance  of  4  inches  by  means  of  stay  jpp, 
bolts.    Between  the  two  plates  are  arranged  the  gearing  for  driving, 
the  bobbin  carriers.    The  bottom  or  bed  plate  holds  the  stud  bolts,  on 


Fig.  10.— Guide  grooves  in  top  plate  of  machine  shown  in  fig.  9.  ■  Ij 

which  revolve  the  "horn  gears."  The  top  plate  has  guide  grooves  J"; 
cut  in  it  according  to  the  type  of  braid  to  be  made,  and  these  grooves  v 
ffuide  the  course  of  the  bobbin  carriers. 

r 


GERMANY  EMBEOIDEKIES  AND  LACES. 


67 


THE  BOBBIN  CARRIERS  AND  THEIR  ATTACHMENTS. 

The  "  bobbin  carriers  "  are  really  the  most  important  part  of  the 
'machine,  and  will  next  be  described  with  their  attachments.  The 
thread  is  wound  on  bobbins  or  spools,  which  may  be  of  different  sizes 
|or  shapes,  as  desired.  The  usual  type  is  a  double-headed  bobbin  with 
[a  4-inch  traverse  and  a  diameter,  when  full,  of  If  inches.  Two 
threads  are  usually  wound  on  each  bobbin  together,  but  there  may 
be  one  only  or  there  may  be  three,  four,  or  more,  according  to  the 
[kind  of  lace  to  be  made.  The  bobbin  carriers  jnay  be  arranged  to 
carry  the  spools  either  horizontally  or  vertically.  The  horizontal 
arrangement  permits  of  the  thread  being  drawn  off  more  evenly  with 
less  liability  of  kinking,  but  takes  up  more  room,  so  is  not  used  except 
for  special  purposes.  The  bobbins  have  round  bores  and  are  slid  on 
the  spindle  of  the  bobbin  carriers  so  as  to  permit  of  turning  easily. 
The  ordinary  spindle  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  hollow  square  with 
rounded  edges,  being  of  pressed  steel  bent  and  brazed  together. 

A  vertical  bobbin  holder  of  the  ordinary  type  used  at  Barmen  is 
^hown  in  fig.  11.  The  small  foot  i)lates  h  and  1/  of  this  boblnn  carrier 
lire  separated  from  each  other  a  distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
'op  plate  by  the  small  vertical  bar  c.  This  bar  is  a  short  straight 
piece  with  rounded  ends  and  slides  in  the  guide  grooves.  The  foot 
plates  h  and  h\  being  above  and  below  the  top  plate  of  the  machine, 
ieep  the  bobbin  carrier  vertical. 

'  The  pin  a  at  the  bottom  of  the  bobbin  carrier  rests  in  a  notch  of  the 
[lorn  gear  below  and  the  revolution  of  the  horn  gear  therefore  moves 
the  bobbin  holder.  These  "  horn  gears "  are  made  with  double 
Ganges.  The  lower  flange  has  cut  in  its  circumference  ordinary  spur 
Iteeth  and  is  revolved  by  means  of  other  gears  which  transmit  to  it 
power  from  the  driving  belt.  The  upper  flange  is  cut  with  notches 
md  horns,  and  the  number  of  these  notches  varies  according  to  the 
3lass  of  machine  and  the  position  of  the  gear  on  the  machine.  These 

|!i  upper  flanges  work  close  together,  so  that  one  is  beveled  on  the  lower 

in  3dge  and  one  on  the  upper  edge. 

THE   TENSION   AND  AUTOMATIC   STOPPING  DEVICES. 

Every  bobbin  carrier  has  a  device  for  regulating  the  tension  of  the 
bhread  being  drawn  off  and  also  an  arrangement  for  automatically 
Stopping  the  machine  when  a  thread  breaks  or  runs  out.  The  stop- 
notion  arrangement  consists  of  a  small  piece  that  slides  up  and  down 
)n  the  standard.  This  is  shown  as  d  in  fig.  11.  '\^^ien  in  operation 
:he  thread  passing  through  the  eye  in  the  top  of  the  piece  d  holds  it 
ip,  but  when  the  thread  breaks  or  runs  out  this  piece  falls  and  a 
Drojection  at  its  bottom  strikes  against  a  lever  on  the  top  plate  and 
:his,  through  the  usual  connections,  stops  the  machine.  For  large 
■nachines  there  are  usually  four  or  six  of  these  levers  arranged  at 
l^arious  points  on  the  top  plate,  so  that  the  machine  is  quickly  stopped 
;vhen  the  bobbin  carrier  with  a  fallen  stop-motion  weight  reaches 
-his  point. 

The  tension  device  consists  of  a  weight  hung  on  the  thread,  and 
his  weight  may  be  hung  inside  the  hollow  spindle  of  the  carrier  or 
nay  slide  up  and  down  on  the  top  part  of  the  carrier  outside.  Fig.  11 
llustrates  the  first  and  fig.  12  the  latter.  The  weight  is  usually 
lung  inside,  as  the  centrifugal  force  of  a  rapidly  revolving  carrier 


68 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


tends  to  prevent  an  outside  carrier  dropping  quickly  enough  to  pre- 
vent kinking  when  the  thread  slackens.   The  weight  is  thus  also  more  ..^ 
protected  from  dirt,  but  this  arrangement  makes  the  threading  some- 
what  more  troublesome.  u 
Fig.  11  shows  a  carrier  without  bobbin,  but  when  a  bobbin  is  placed'  jj^j 
on  it  the  thread  is  first  run  through  the  eye  near  the  center  of  the 
standard,  then  through  the  stop-motion  eye,  then  up  through  the  eye 
at  the  top  of  the  standard,  down  through  an  eye  in  the  lever 
through  the  tension-weight  eye,  and  then  through  the  eye  at  the  top 
of  the  hollow  spindle,  whence  it  goes  to  the  braid  former.  This  makes 
a  total  of  six  eyes  to  be  threaded.    On  both  styles  the  short  lever  at 
the  top  is  arranged  so  as  to  be  lifted  clear  of  notches  in  the  top  of  theL 
spool  by  the  tension  of  the  thread,  but  when  this  tension  ceases  thej^j 
lever  drops  into  a  notch  and  prevents  the  bobbin  continuing  to 
unwind. 

liiti 


coiir 
addi 
p 
iiie 
ssti 
ml 

Dg 

'an 
ktl 
tilt 
sepa: 
coiir: 

COIIF: 

Ihe; 
'le 
and 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  11.— Vertical  bobbin  holder.    Fig.  12.— Bobbin  carrier,  showing  the  outside  tension  weight. 
Fig.  13.— Courses  of  bobbins  in  making  three-line  lace. 

VARIATIONS  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  VARIOUS  WEAVES. 

For  making  ordinary  braid  two  gears  are  of  course  the  least  pos 
sible  number  that  can  be  used.  On  large  lace  machines  there  may  b 
as  many  as  60.  In  making  the  simple  "  soutache  "  braid  previously 
noted  the  horn  gears  at  the  end  are  always  made  with  an  odd  numbe 
of  teeth  and  the  middle  gears  with  an  even  number  of  teeth.  Th 
reason  for  this  is  readily  seen,  as  the  end  gears  have  to  carry  eacl 
bobbin  completely  around  and  start  it  in  between  two  other  bobbin 
on  its  return  course.  The  end  gears,  having  a  tooth  more  than  th 
middle  gears,  also  incidentally  tend  to  make  a  better  selvage. 

For  plain  soutache  braids  the  end  gears  usually  have  five  horn 
and  the  middle  gears  four.  For  diamond  pattern  flat  braid  the  en( 
gears  may  have  three  horns  and  the  middle  gears  two,  but  as  ordi 
narily  produced  this  braid  is  made  with  two  threads  instead  of  one 
in  which  case  they  have  six  and  four  horns,  respectively.  For  Her 
cules  flat  braid  the  end  gears  have  seven  horns  and  the  middle  gear 
six. 

In  making  round  braid  there  is  no  reversing,  and  as  each  bobbii 
repeats  continually  the  same  course,  the  gears  all  have  the  same  num 
ber  of  horns  and  these  are  made  of  an  even  number.    Barmen  lace 


GERMANY  EMBROIDEBIES  AND  LACES.  69 

Lre  made  in  three  styles,  either  two,  three,  or  four  threads  to  a 
'  Litzen  "  or  course,  so  the  horn  gears  for  this  work  are  made  with 
'our,  six,  or  eight  horns,  according  to  which  is  desired.  There  must 
dways  be  at  least  double  as  many  horns  as  there  are  bobbins,  so  that 
sach  bobbin  carrier  pin  in  shifting  from  one  gear  to  another  will 
ind  a  vacant  notch  ready  for  occupation. 

The  total  number  of  bobbins  for  making  Barmen  lace  simply  de- 
fends on  the  design  and  the  size  in  which  the  machine  may  be  built. 
3f  the  four-thread  Barmen  laces  the  highest  number  of  separate 
•  Litzen  "  or  tracks  at  present  used  on  machines  here  is  24,  which 
'^ives  a  96-thread  lace.  The  largest  two-thread  machines  have  60 
;eparate  tracks  or  courses,  or  a  total  of  120  threads  braiding  together. 
'_jaces  up  to  10  inches  wide  can  be  made  on  such  machines.  These 
ire  the  largest  Barmen  lace  machines  built.  They  have  a  diameter 
)f  3  meters  (meter=39.37  inches)  and  cost  3,000  marks  ($714)  each, 
)ut  there  are  only  six  as  large  as  this  as  yet  used  at  Barmen. 

!  MODIFICATIONS  NECESSARY  FOR  MAKING  THREE-LINE  LACE. 

As  the  tracks  on  a  Barmen  lace  machine  do  not  overlap  each  other 
md  are  separated  by  switches,  the  horn  gears  at  the  ends  of  the 
30urses  do  not  meet  and  special  horn  gears  have  to  be  employed  in 
iddition  to  the  regular  ones.  This  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the 
2:rooves  in  the  top  plate  of  the  machines  follow  very  nearly  the  pitch 
line  of  the  gears  underneath.  In  fig.  13  will  be  seen — projected  on 
1  straight  line  for  convenience  in  explaining — the  grooves  that  are 
Lised  around  the  circumference  of  a  Barmen  lace  machine  for  mak- 
ing a  particular  lace.  This  lace  is  called  a  three-line  four-thread 
Barmen  lace.  It  is  made  with  12  threads,  and  dots  marked  I  to  XII 
in  the  figure  show  the  position  of  the  12  bobbins  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  lace  figure  on  line  a.  It  is  seen  that  there  are  three 
separate  courses,  consisting  of  four  separate  circles  for  the  two  outer 
courses  and  five  for  the  inner.  The  two  circles  in  between  are 
courses  that  are  occupied  only  when  the  switches  are  open  and  at 
other  times  they  and  the  auxiliary  horn  gears  outside  run  empty. 
The  lace  is  called  three-line,  because  there  are  three  distinct  stripes 
[and  these  interlace  only  at  intervals,  the  first  being  when  bobbin 
No.  I  and  bobbin  No.  IX  change  places.  The  method  of  interlacing 
ds  shown  so  clearly  by  the  diagram  as  to  need  no  explanation. 

THE  BRAID  FORMER  AND  TAKE-OFF  ROLLERS. 

!  The  threads  collect  as  braided  together  at  the  braid  former  above 
ithe  center  of  the  machine  and  the  finished  braid  is  drawn  off  by  the 
take-up  rollers  clear  of  the  machine  and  falls  into  a  can  placed  along- 
side. The  braid  former  consists  of  an  eye,  which  may  be  of  any  shape 
desired.  For  heavy  or  complicated  work  it  is  necessary  that  the 
braid  forming  shall  be  assisted  by  some  device  to  beat  up  the  threads 
and  compact  them  m  a  fashion  similar  to  the  beating-up  work  done 
by  the  forward  action  of  the  lay  in  the  ordinary  loom.  For  some 
styles  of  braids  this  is  performed  by  means  of  two  combs  on  long 
arms  which  swing  in  toward  the  braid  former  along  the  course  of 
the  forming  braid.  In  others  there  are  arranged  above  the  braid 
former  an  eccentric  arrangement  with  pivoted  arms,  and  these  arms 
hold  curved  wires  which  swing  in  radially  toward  the  braid  former 


70 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EtTEOPE. 


and  beat  up  the  interlacing  threads.  This  arrangement  is  shown 
complete  in  fig.  9. 

The  take-up  motion  consists  of  three  rollers  which  draw  off  the 
finished  braid.  Their  speed  can  be  regulated  by  change  gears  and 
their  distance  apart  adjusted  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  braid. 
Some  are  arranged  so  that  only  one  roller  is  fixed  and  the  others  held 
in  position  by  springs.  For  braided  work  of  irregular  shapes  cal- 
ender rollers  are  dispensed  with  and  the  material  drawn  off  by  the 
friction  of  one  or  two  wrappings  around  a  large  wheel,  which  may 
have  grooves  cut  in  it.  For  very  irregular  shapes  the  material  has 
to  be  drawn  off  by  hand. 


0 


ATTACHMENTS  FOR  WEAVING  SPECIALTIES. 

For  special  effects  Barmen  lace  machines  are  made  with  other  at- 
tachments and  special  arrangements.  One  arrangement  consists  of 
introducing  extra  threads  from  an  outside  source  for  making  a  core, 
around  which  the  regular  threads  from  the  carriers  interweave. 
Such  extra  threads  are  called  distinctively  "  warp  threads,"  and  are 
usually  drawn  from  stationary  bobbins  placed  on  the  floor  under  the 
machine  and  drawn  up  through  hollow  bolts  into  the  braid  being 
formed  by  a  set  of  interlacing  bobbins. 

Another  arrangement  for  producing  specialties  consists,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  in  varying  the  tension  of  the  threads  by  means  of 
hanging  weights  of  different  sizes  on  particular  threads.    This  pre 
vents  the  braid  running  in  a  straight  line  and  produces  wave  and  other 
similar  effects. 

Another  special  device  is  that  for  making  loops.  There  are  several 
patented  arrangements  for  this,  but  the  principle  used  in  all  is  that  of 
a  straight  wire  pointing  from  a  certain  place  just  over  the  tops  of  the 
revolving  bobbin  carriers  toward  the  braid  former.  The  threads 
pass  under  it  to  the  braid  former  without  being  affected,  but  at  in 
tervals  the  outer  end  drops  momentarily  on  to  the  top  of  a  carrier 
spindle,  when  the  thread  of  that  bobbin  passes  over  the  wire  and  is 
thereby  caused  to  make  a  loop.  The  carriers  are  usually  so  arranged 
that  part  of  them  have  projections  at  the  top  to  strike  and  pull  down 
this  wire  for  the  second  that  they  meet,  while  the  other  carriers,  being 
without  these  projecting  collars,  pass  under  without  being  touched. 

REGULATION  OF  THE  PATTERN  THE  JACQUARD  SYSTEM.  . 

It  has  been  previously  shown  that  on  Barmen  lace  machines  the 
bobbins  from  the  separate  braids  being  made  only  interweave  when 
the  switches  between  the  separate  courses  are  open.  The  pattern 
therefore  depends  on  the  order  in  which  these  switches  are  opened  and 
closed.  There  are  three  separate  methods  of  accomplishing  this.  The 
oldest  and  simplest  plan  is  to  fasten  vertical  pins  in  the  switch 
tongues  and  then  provide  special  bobbin  carriers  with  projecting  col- 
lars which  will  strike  these  pins  and  open  and  close  the  switches  either 
for  their  own  passage  or  that  of  a  succeeding  carrier  without  collar. 
This  arrangement  permits  of  only  short  patterns  and  is  now  little 
used  except  for  special  purposes. 

The  second  system  consists  of  a  series  of  notched  disks  revolving  on 
a  horizontal  shaft  at  the  side  of  the  machine.  The  notches  corre- 
spond to  the  distances  of  the  carriers  on  the  machine,  and  movable 


faiii 
ill 


0 


ffilli 
piir 
e[v 


m 


GERMANY  EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES. 


71 


^lingers  are  attached  to  each  disk  and  can  be  clamped  into  any  notch 
s  desired,  and  each  finger  on  striking  against  the  lever  pin  below 
.auses  the  connecting  lever  to  open  or  close  the  particular  switch  to 
7hich  it  is  attached.  This  system  also  does  not  permit  of  sufficient 
ariety,  and  while  there  are  a  good  many  machines  of  this  type  at 
iarmen  they  are  nearly  all  old  machines,  and  the  new  machines  have 
he  Jacquard  arrangement,  which  is  shoAvn  in  fig.  9.  It  is  seen  that 
,[1  this  third  method  the  pattern  is  fixed  by  means  of  the  perforated 
•asteboard  cards  running  over  the  revolving  square  of  an  ordinary 
I'acquard,  so  that  where  there  is  a  hole  in  the  card  a  needle  swings  in 
ind  its  connecting  lever  moves  a  particular  switch  and  where  there  is 
.0  hole  met  the  needle  can  not  shift  the  switch.  The  patterns  are 
tamped  on  punching  machines  exactly  the  same  as  for  the  ordinary 

J  bom  Jacquard  work. 

ARRANGEMENT  AND  SPEED  OF  THE  MACHINES. 

g'l  Large  lace  machines  are  mounted  on  separate  tables  with  separate 
,j  >elts,  but  the  majority  of  the  machines  at  Barmen  are  mounted  in  sets 
-f  10,  there  being  5  on  each  side  of  a  short  central  shaft  driven  from 
belt  at  the  end.    This  central  shaft  carries  bevel  wheels,  which  gear 
7ith  horizontal  bevel  wheels,  and  thence  transmit  the  power  through 
,  pur  gearing  to  the  carriers  and  take-up  attachment  of  each  machine. 
Between  each  separate  machine  and  the  bevel  gears  are  often  inter- 
)Osed  clutch  gears,  so  that  any  particular  machine  can  be  thrown  out 
>f  gear  without  stopping  the  others. 

The  shaft  of  the  braiding  machines  is  usually  run  at  about  75 
'evolutions  per  minute,  and  the  speed  of  the  ordinary  braiding  ma- 
hines  is  given  by  manufacturers  as  from  180  to  250  turns  of  the 
landle  per  minute.  This  is  a  wide  range,  but  the  range  of  the  Avork 
s  equally  wide,  and  the  speed  is  varied  not  only  according  to  the  com- 
plexity of  the  particular  design,  but  also  according  to  the  skill  of  the 
)perator.  The  speed  of  each  machine  or  set  of  machines  can  be 
quickly  changed  by  means  of  change  gears.  These  machines  are 
irranged  so  that  one  turn  of  the  handle — this  handle  may  be  seen  in 
ig.  9,  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  turning  the  machine  backward  or 
forward  by  hand — is  made  while  two  carriers  are  passing  any  par- 
:icular  point  on  the  guide  grooves.  There  are,  therefore,  two  inter- 
acings,  corresponding  to  two  "  picks  "  of  a  loom,  made  for  each 
landle  turn,  and  the  number  of  crossings  will  usually  be  two  times 
100  or  400  a  minute.  For  Barmen  laces  the  speed  is  slower  and  is 
isually  given  in  Jacquard  movements  per  minute  instead  of  handle 
turns  per  minute.  The  speed  here  also  depends  on  the  design,  the 
workman,  and  the  strength  of  the  material,  and  is  given  by  manufac- 
turers as  ordinarily  ranging  between  120  and  170  Jacquard  move- 
ments per  minute.  By  this  is  meant  that  120  to  170  Jacquard  cards 
are  presented  to  the  needles  every  minute. 

i  YARN  SPOOLING  FINISHING  AND  PACKING  LACES. 

■  The  lace  factories  buy  their  yarn  from  spinners,  some  of  it  being 
imported.  This  is  usually  in  skeins  and  is  then  wound  on  the  spools 
or  bobbins  of  the  particular  size  and  shape  required.  Some  factories 
let  this  work  out  to  home  workers,  who  do  nothing  else.  There  are 
36  such  establishments  in  Barmen,  employing  280  operatives,  who 


72 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


do  only  this  spooling  for  the  factories.  In  some  of  these  places  the  ^ 
work  is  done  by  power  and  in  others  by  hand.  In  the  regular  fac-'kiw 
tories  I  also  noticed  men  operating  liandwheels,  but  this  is  usually!  di" 
for  spooling  on  bobbins  of  special  sizes  or  sizes  needed  in  limited  scli|' 
numbers.  U' 
After  manufacturing  some  braids  and  laces  are  considered  com-  s, 
plete,  but  the  majority  of  them  are  run  through  a  small  calendering  to 
machine  to  finish  and  in  some  cases  to  size.  The  machine  is  made  so  ii? 
that  the  laces  first  pass  over  live  steam  to  soften  them  and  then 
through  the  ordinary  steam-filled  calender  rolls.  They  then  go  to 
the  shipping  room,  where  they  are  inspected,  wound  on  cardboard,  T 
cut  up  into  the  required  lengths,  ticketed,  wrapped,  put  in  cardboard  mi 
boxes,  and  these  cased.  The  cardboard  on  which  the  laces  are  wound ijb 
is  held  between  two  flat-slit  clutches  and  then  revolved  by  hand  until  gpi 
the  desired  length  is  wound  on,  when  the  roll  is  taken  off  and  a  newiljuf 
piece  of  cardboard  inserted.  [ot 

PPvICE  OF  MACHINES  WAGES  AND  HOURS  OF  OPERATIVES.  ^ 

The  price  of  Barmen  machines  varies  greatly  according  to  the 
number  of  spools,  the  number  of  tracks,  the  particular  attachments 
desired,  etc.  One  manufacturer  stated  that  his  charges  were  based 
on  55  marks  (mark=23.8  cents)  per  Litzen  or  track,  while  another  ^ 
gave  his  prices  as  ranging  from  420  marks  for  a  6-litzen  lace  machine 
to  3,000  marks  for  a  60-litzen  lace  machine  with  2  threads  to  a  litzen. 
The  price  may  therefore  be  figured  as  about  $12  per  track,  or  $288 
for  the  ordinary  24-track  lace  machine.  ^ 

For  ordinary  work  at  Barmen  one  operative,  either  man  or  woman,  180 
runs  one  set  of  10  heads,  and  makes  4  marks  a  day  or  24  marks  a 
week.    The  hours  vary  considerably  at  different  factories,  but  the  tke 
usual  time  seems  to  be  fifty-seven  hours  a  week.    The  usual  arrange- 
ment is  from  7  a.  m.  to  12  and  from  1  p.  m.  to  6.30,  with  fifteen  min- 
utes for  the  regular  4  o'clock  stoppage  and  only  six  hours  on  Saturday. 

In  Saxony  I  found  that  the  majority  of  the  textile  factories  did 
not  stop  more  than  an  hour  earlier  than  usual  on  Saturdays,  but  Sj 
around  Barmen  the  operatives  demand  the  Saturday  afternoon  and  lec 
prefer  to  have  this  half  holiday  and  make  up  the  time  during  the  cal 
other  five  days.  The  total  hours  per  week  are  also  somewhat  less  b 
than  in  Saxony.  ;  k 

[One  photograph  showing  cord-braiding  machines  in  operation, 
and  seven  additional  text  figures  of  different  parts  of  lace-making  tn 
machines,  together  with  eighteen  samples  of  the  various  kinds  and  is 
styles  of  braids  and  laces  manufactured  at  Barmen,  accompanying  u 
the  foregoing  report,  are  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.]  ^ 



PLAUEN  DISTRICT. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EMBROIDERED  OR  ETCHED  LACES.  ' 

Of  the  many  branches  of  cotton  manufacturing,  that  of  lace  mak- 
ing is  the  most  refined  and  artistic.    The  products  of  this  branch,  J 
more  than  those  of  any  other,  are  used  for  purposes  of  ornamentation, 
as  distinguished  from  wear  and  durability.    This  is  especially  true 
of  the  Plauen  lace,  which  is  used  almost  exclusively  to  trim  ladies'  ^ 
dresses  and  to  make  fancy  blouses,  overskirts,  etc. 


GERMANY  EMBROIDERTES  AND  LACES. 


73 


til    Of  the  four  big  European  centers  for  lace  and  embroidery,  Notting- 
am  and  Calais  produce  mainly  fancy  lace  on  the  Levers  lace  ma- 
hine.   St.  Gall  makes  little  lace,  but  employs  both  the  hand  and  the 
te|chiffli  power  machine  for  embroidering  on  muslin  and  cambric. 

his  work  is  for  utilitarian  purposes,  such  as  underwear,  corset  cov- 
imlrs,  etc.    The  Plauen  manufacturers  work  on  an  entirely  separate 
jTanch  of  the  industry,  as  they  use  the  embroidery  machine  for  mak- 
sc  ng  lace.  The  Plauen  product  is  known  as  embroidery  or  etched  lace. 


ANNUAL  PRODUCTION,  AND  EXPORTS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Plauen  district  produces  annually  embroidery  laces  to  an  esti- 
'r|aated  value  of  70,000,000  marks  (mark=23.8  cents).  Of  this  only 
bout  one-fifth  is  retained  for  use  in  Germany,  and  the  remainder  is 
xported  to  other  countries,  especially  to  the  United  States  and  Eng- 
and.  The  figures  for  laces  and  embroideries  shipped  from  Plauen 
o  the  United  States  in  1907  are  as  follows : 


jRces  and  embroidered  articles: 

Cotton  $3,  211,  784 

Cambric    118,000 

Silli   150,015 

Artificial  sUk   84,  018 

Linen   29,  992 

jace  curtains   18,  746 

torchon  lace   1,  353 


Total   3,  622,  903 

The  total  value  of  all  exports  from  Plauen  to  the  United  States  in 
.907  was  $4,479,021,  so  it  is  seen  that  laces  and  embroideries  form 
hree-fourths  of  the  total,  and  the  growth  of  this  business  is  worthy 
he  careful  attention  of  American  manufacturers. 

,  HISTORY  or  THE  INDUSTRY. 

Plauen  in  Vogtland,  as  it  is  known,  to  distinguish  it  from  another 
Plauen  near  Dresden,  is  loftily  situated  in  the  southwestern  section  of 
Saxony.  In  ancient  times  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Vogt  (Advocatus 
•egni),  and  it  is  now  the  capital  of  the  section  of  Saxony  that  is  still 
called,  as  in  ancient  times,  Vogtland.  The  Vogtland  and  the  neigh- 
boring portion  of  southern  Saxony  known  as  the  Erz-Gebirge  have 
)een  centers  for  the  textile  industry  for  centuries. 

This  section  is  situated  on  the  old  highways  of  trade  that  .ran  be- 
ween  northern  Germany  and  Bohemia  and  Bavaria,  and  as  the  soil 
s  shallow  and  the  people  naturally  a  home-loving  and  an  indoor 
'ace,  they  started  cottage  industries,  especially  textile  industries,  at 
m  early  date.  This  section  became  noted  for  its  hand  embroidery 
;vork,  and  the  knowledge  acquired  in  this  line  was  handed  down  from 
Father  to  son. 

The  modern  work  may  be  said  to  date  from  1857,  when  the  first 
land  machine  for  making  embroidery  was  introduced  from  Switzer- 
and,  but  it  was  not  until  1881,  when  Herr  Bickel,  at  Plauen,  origi- 
lated  the  idea  of  embroidering  on  tulle,  that  the  specialty  was  started 
:hat  has  since  made  Plauen  famous.  The  idea  of  embroidering  on 
let  was  later  followed  by  that  of  embroidering  on  a  material  to  be 
chemically  removed  so  as  to  leave  only  the  embroidered  lace  itself. 


74 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUKOPE. 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  PRESENT  CONDITIONS. 

When  this  specialty  was  started  there  were  only  some  30,000  people 
in'Plauen,  but  in  the  quarter  of  a  century  that  has  elapsed  since  then 
the  population  has  more  than  trebled  and  is  now  given  as  about 
110,000.  This  population  has  gathered  here  from  all  over  Germany, 
being  attracted  by  the  higher  wages.  For  a  while  this  specialty  was 
almost  a  monopoly  of  this  one  place  and  the  demand  was  such  that 
large  profits  were  made.  Even  to-day  this  specialty  is  more  devel- 
oped in  this  one  town  than  in  any  other  country  of  the  world,  and 
through  its  lower  wages  and  its  highly  trained  personnel  it  is  enabled 
to  sell  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  these  goods  every  year  to  great 
textile  countries  like  England  and  the  United  States. 

The  profits  in  this  business  have  been  so  good  that  not  only  were 
skilled  and  unskilled  operatives  attracted  here  from  all  over  Ger- 
many and  from  other  countries,  but  men  in  other  lines  of  trade  started 
in  business  on  their  own  account.  Such  men  would  buy  or  rent  a 
few  machines  and  employ  a  few  skilled  operatives  to  run  them.  In 
the  prosperous  period  they  easily  got  orders,  and  starting  with  no 
knowledge  of  the  business  at  all  some  gradually  built  up  large  firms. 
At  the  present  time  (March,  1908)  the  business  is  feeling  the  stress 
of  hard  times,  and  many  of  these  immature  firms  that  have  been 
started  in  the  last  few  years  will  probably  go  under.  The  financial 
crisis  and  the  consequent  lack  of  buying  orders  from  the  United 
States  is  being  severely  felt,  and  all  the  factories  are  running  short 
time  and  some  have  closed  down.  Any  disturbance  of  the  buying 
power  of  the  United  States  is  felt  in  every  textile  center  in  Europe, 
and  the  most  practical  method  to  avoid  disturbing  these  markets  is 
to  make  such  textiles  at  home. 

Embroidery  and  lace  making  is  scattered  throughout  the  Vogtland 
and  Erz-Gebirge,  but  centers  around  Plauen  and  the  neighboring 
towns  of  Auerbach,  Falkenstein,  and  Treuen.  Eibenstock  is  also 
quite  a  center,  but  works  on  a  special  line. 

HAND-MADE  LACES  AND  BEAD  EMBROIDERIES. 

In  considering  lace  work  in  the  Plauen  district  it  may  be  noted  that 
lace  can  be  made  by  three  separate  methods,  being  known  as  needle, 
pillow,  and  machine. 

Needle  lace  is  made  with  the  needle  by  hand,  and  lace  so  made  was 
called  in  old  times  "  needle  "  or  "  point "  lace.  Pillow  lace  is  made 
by  interweaving  by  hand  the  various  threads  around  pins  stuck  in  a 
pillow.  Machine-made  lace  is  a  quite  recent  development,  but  em- 
braces a  good  many  systems. 

Hand  embroidery  is  still  employed  in  upper  Vogtland,  and  is  made 
with  either  a  regular  sewing  needle  or  with  the  tambour  needle.  It 
is  made  on  a  cotton  or  linen  ground.  Both  needle  and  pillow  lace 
are  occasionally  to  be  found  also,  though  only  to  a  limited  extent. 
The  manufacture  of  hand-embroidered  blouses  and  robes,  also  of  the 
so-called  "  Battenberg "  articles — little  tapes  joined  together  by 
needlework — still  flourishes  in  this  section. 

Eibenstock  is  the  largest  hand-embroidery  center,  and  has  a  repu- 
tation for  rich  designs  and  fancy  work.  To  a  larger  extent  it  is 
noted  for  its  bead  embroideries.  Polished  Bohemian  beads  of  various 
colors  and  spangle  made  from  a  mixture  of  gelatine  and  cellulose 


GEKMANY  EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES. 


75 


re  sewn  on  by  hand  and  used  to  make  dress  trimmings,  edgings, 
skirts,  collars,  belts,  etc.  Bead  embroideries  made  on  black  tulle  and 
Oeadwork  formed  on  metal  tulle  also  have  a  good  sale. 

There  is  still  some  hand  work  done  at  Plauen  itself  in  embroider- 
ng  colored  wash  articles,  but  this  is  more  in  the  way  of  supplemen- 
ary  work,  and  the  increasing  number  of  women  required  in  the 
5chiffli  factories  tends  to  still  further  restrict  this  home  work. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  Plauen  articles  are  made  on  machines  which 
ire  either  worked  by  hand  or  power,  the  chain-stitch  articles  being 
nade  on  the  tambour  machine,  ordinary  white  embroideries  on  the 
land-embroidery  machine,  and  the  laces  on  the  schiffli  power  machines. 

The  chain-stitch  embroideries,  as  made  on  the  tambour  machines, 
md  on  the  lace  sewing  machines  of  varied  types,  are  mainly  used  for 
iecorative  home  work,  such  as  curtains,  doilies,  centerpieces,  etc. 

The  regular  white  embroidery  in  the  Vogtland  is  mainly  made  on 
;he  hand-embroidery  machines,  and  is  similar  to  the  Swiss  em- 
proidery.  It  is  made  on  a  permanent  foundation  of  muslin,  cambric, 
)r  nainsook.  The  Plauen  work  in  this  line  is  mainly  of  the  cheaper 
/arieties,  for  they  can  not  compete  with  the  Swiss  manufacturers  on 
;he  higher  and  more  perfected  designs.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
;his  white  embroidery  is  a  secondary  branch  at  Plauen,  while  at  St. 
jrall  it  is  the  main  business  and  has  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
Derfection  in  all  details  of  the  work. 

GERMAN  VERSUS  SWISS  WORKERS  AND  PRODUCT. 

The  Swiss  operative  is  more  skilled  than  the  German  operative,  and 
his  wages  in  this  line  are  smaller.  From  figures  obtained  at  both 
centers  in  regard  to  this  industry  it  would  seem  that  the  German 
worker  receives  the  same  number  of  marks  (mark=23.8  cents)  that 
he  Swiss  worker  does  francs  (franc— 19.3  cents) .  Another  important 
point  is  that  the  bleaching  at  St.  Gall  gives  more  of  a  dead  Avhite 
jleach  than  does  that  of  Plauen.  The  St.  Gall  bleacheries  obtain  their 
water  from  the  Bodensee  (Lake  of  Constance),  while  at  Plauen  they 
iepend  partly  on  wells  and  partly  on  a  small  river,  the  Weiss  Elster, 
which  is  frequently  muddy. 

The  hand  machines  in  use  at  Plauen  are  similar  to  those  described 
in  my  report  on  the  SAviss  industry ,°  but  are  usually  5  yards  wide 
instead  of  4J,  as  customary  in  Switzerland.  This  machine  was  intro- 
duced from  Switzerland  in  1857,  and  in  1863  there  were  100  in  opera- 
tion. This  number  gradually  increased  until  there  were  some  4,800 
in  1893;  since  then  they  have  not  been  able  to  stand  the  competition 
Df  the  power  machines^nd  have  decreased  in  numbers  until  they  are 
estimated  now  at  not  much  over  2,500.  Each  machine  is  estimated 
to  produce  3,000  marks  worth  of  embroidery  a  year,  so  their  total 
production  may  be  roughly  figured  at  7,500,000  marks.  The  bulk  of 
the  work  in  this  line  is  for  home  consumption  in  Germany  and  little 
is  exported. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SCHIFFLI-MACHINE  LACES. 

The  Plauen  laces  are  made  on  the  schiffli  machine,  and  therefore, 
whether  tulle  laces,  guipures,  imitations  of  real  laces,  etc.,  are  all 
classed  as  embroidery  laces.    The  number  of  schiffli  machines  used 


Swiss  Embroidery  and  Lace  Industry,  monograph,  published  by  the  Bureau 
of  Manufactures,  pp.  43. 


76  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE.  ^ 


at  Plauen  has  steadily  increased  in  the  past  few  years  and  is  noYJ 
estimated  at  7,000.  Each  machine  is  estimated  to  produce  at  least 
10,000  marks  of  lace  a  year,  so  that  the  total  production  in  this  lint 
may  be  figured  at  fully  70,000,000  marks  annually. 

Although  this  Plauen  specialty  was  inaugurated  in  1881,  it  onlj 
came  into  practical  operation  in  1883  through  a  Plauen  manufac- 
turer using  a  tulle  foundation  and  making  articles  to  imitate  hand- 
made lace.  This  new  lace  became  popular  and  profitable.  Latei 
the  further  idea  was  evolved  of  using  a  temporary  background  tc 
be  removed  after  the  stitching  was  completed.  For  this  purposei: 
chemical  cloths  are  used.  The  stitching  is  made  on  this  as  on  ani 
ordinary  muslin  background,  and  then  acids  used  to  dissolve  the} 
cloth  and  leave  only  the  embroidered  lace  effects.  , 

There  are  a  good  many  patented  processes,  and  every  other  manu-j 
facturer  at  Plauen  has  his  favorite  method.  The  principle  of  all  of' 
them,  however,  is  that  of  using  a  chemical  cloth  of  vegetable  fibers! 
when  the  embroidery  thread  is  of  animal  fibers  and  a  chemical  cloth: 
of  animal  fibers  where  the  embroidery  thread  is  of  vegetable  fibers. 
Thus,  for  cotton  the  chemical  cloth  is  usually  woven  of  wool,  but  for 
silk  embroidering  the  chemical  cloth  is  of  cotton.  In  the  former  case 
the  embroidered  cloth  usually  passes  through  an  acid  bath,  which 
dissolves  the  cloth  and  leaves  unaffected  the  cotton  lace.  With  silk 
or  artificial  silk  there  can  be  no  wet  treatment,  hence  the  finished 
material  is  usually  run  over  a  gas  flame  and  the  foundation  ma- 
terial burned  off.  In  some  cases  a  hot  iron  passed  over  the  back  of 
the  material  is  sufficient  to  accomplish  this  purpose. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  FOUNDATION  MATERIALS.  j| 

Four  samples  of  the  main  foundation  materials  used  in  this  in- 
dustry are  forAvarded  [on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures].  The 
principal  one  is  a  muslin,  of  which  every  two  warp  threads,  each 
shedding  separately,  however,  lie  together,  so  that  the  muslin  has 
also  a  rep  effect.  This  muslin  is  made  in  England  and  Germany  and 
none  is  made  in  the  United  States.  The  bulk  of  the  Plauen  demand 
is  now  supplied  by  Miilhausen,  in  Alsace-Lorraine.  This  muslin  is 
usually  120  centimeters  (47.25  inches)  wide  and  has  88  warp  and  84 
filling  threads  per  inch.  The  present  price  at  Plauen  is  66  pfennigs 
a  meter,  which  is  about  14.4  cents  a  yard,  less  2  per  cent  discount. 

Another  sample  of  background  is  a  woolen  cloth,  made  of  red  warp 
and  white  filling,  and  chemically  prepared  so  as  to  readily  dissolve 
when  placed  in  a  bath  of  a  certain  acid.  This  particular  cloth  is 
160  centimeters  (63  inches)  wide,  54  by  54  construction,  and  the 
present  Plauen  price  is  98  pfennigs  a  meter,  say,  21.4  cents  a  yard, 
less  2  per  cent  discount. 

The  third  sample  shows  one  of  the  regular  styles  of  bobbinet,  made, 
with  38  holes  to  the  square  inch.  These  nets  are  made  very  wide,! 
so  as  to  be  the  full  width  of  the  embroidery  frame.  The  particular! 
sample  shown  was  550  centimeters,  or  6  yards  wide,  and  the  present 
Plauen  price  is  3.65  marks  a  meter,  say,  80  cents  a  yard. 

The  fourth  sample  shows  a  square  net.  This  net  was  160  centi- 
meters (63  inches)  wide,  has  17  meshes  per  inch  each  way,  and  the 
present  Plauen  price  is  1.35  marks  per  meter,  say,  29  cents  per  yard, 
less  2  per  cent  discount. 


I 


GERMANY  EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES. 


77 


The  tulle  used  at  Plauen  formerly  came  almost  entirely  from  Not- 
'  tingham,  but  there  are  now  tulle  factories  at  Chemnitz,  Plauen,  Miil- 
hausen,  and  other  points,  so  that  the  larger  portion  of  this  founda- 
tion material  is  now  obtained  in  Germany.  Though  tulle  is  not  made 
in  the  United  States,  the  superintendent  of  the  large  tulle  factory 
at  Chemnitz  is  an  American.  The  bulk  of  the  chemical  cloth  is  also 
obtained  in  Germany.  The  general  term  for  all  laces  made  on  chem- 
ically prepared  cloth  is  guipure  lace. 

Laces  can  be  made  in  greater  variety  of  effects  on  the  embroidery 
machine  than  is  possible  by  any  other  method,  except  that  of  hand- 
made lace.  The  variety  is  much  greater  than  is  possible  in  the  case 
of  white  embroideries,  and  is  also  greater  than  can  be  produced  on 
i  the  Levers  lace  machine,  as  the  latter  can  not  make  the  heavy  and 
raised  effects.  Laces  arc  made  on  the  schiffli  machine  at  Plauen  in 
imitation  of  every  style  of  lace,  from  the  heavy  "  Venice  points  "  with 
relief  to  the  lightest  and  finest  old  point  laces.  Some  are  so  skillfully 
made  that  only  an  expert  in  this  line  can  distinguish  the  difference, 
and  whereas  only  the  very  wealthy  could  afford  the  genuine  lace,  the 
modern  lace  is  made  for  the  masses. 

TECHNICAL  TRAINING  OF  EXPERT  DESIGNERS. 

In  making  lace  the  salabilitj^  of  the  finished  article  depends  ]nore 
on  the  artistic  design  than  it  does  on  the  mechanical  finish,  and  the 
designers  of  the  finer  class  of  laces  are  highly  skilled  men.  The  Ger- 
man Government  fosters  the  creation  of  special  schools  located  at 
every  center  that  produces  a  specialty.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan 
there  is  at  Plauen  a  Royal  Industrial  School  that  is  one  of  the  best  in 
Germany,  and  that  has  had  a  good  deal  to  do,  through  the  trained 
designers  it  has  turned  out,  with  extending  and  perfecting  Plauen's 
special  industry  of  etched  lace  making.  Connected  with  the  school 
is  a  museum  which  has  one  of  the  finest  collections  in  Europe  of  old 
and  modern  laces.  Such  a  museum  is  of  great  help  to  the  student.  In 
order  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  industry  there  are  branch  museums 
at  Eibenstock,  Annaberg,  Falkenstein,  Auerbach,  Glauchau,  Meerane, 
and  Frankenberg,  the  exhibits  of  which  are  exchanged  with  the  cen- 
tral museum  at  Plauen. 

The  result  of  the  study  of  the  old  designs  by  the  young  men  being 
trained  for  a  life  work  as  desig-ners  has  shown  itself  not  only  in  the 
imitation  of  the  old  laces  so  exactly  by  machine  as  scarcely  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  hand  work,  but  in  the  great  number  of  new  forms 
and  combinations  that  are  continually  being  introduced  and  by  means 
of  which  the  Plauen  manufacturers  are  enabled  to  get  the  best  prices 
and  keep  just  a  step  ahead  of  their  competitors. 

MADE-UP  GOODS  NUMBER  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FACTORIES. 

In  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  laces  there  has  grown  up 
a  large  business  at  Plauen  in  the  manufacture  of  made-up  goods. 
The  large  factories  run  this  in  connection  with  their  regular  manu- 
facturing business,  usually  in  a  separate  building,  however,  though 
it  is  really  a  special  line  in  itself,  and  there  are  firms  who  do  nothing 
else.  For  this  work  laces  are  manufactured  in  the  special  shapes 
desired  and  then  sewed  and  fitted  together  to  form  collars,  blouses, 
or  whole  dresses  entirely  of  lace  work.    This  sewing  together  is  done 


78 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


SO  skillfully  on  the  finer  work  as  to  be  almost  indistinguishable,  and 
the  shaping  and  arrangement  of  the  different  pieces  to  form  the 
finished  article  requires  not  only  skilled  hand  work  but  also  skilled 
brain  work.  The  head  women  employed  on  this  Avork  have  to  be 
artists,  and  they  get  300  marks  and  more  per  month. 

The  embroidery  and  lace  manufacturers,  of  which  there  are  some 
450  in  and  around  Plauen,  are  all  private  firms,  Avith  very  few  ex- 
ceptions. The  larger  factories  are  mainly  four  stories,  but  many 
prefer  to  have  only  a  part  of  the  factory  in  several  stories,  usually 
the  offices,  storage,  and  finishing  rooms,  etc.,  and  to  have  the  bulk 
of  the  machines  in  a  single-story  saAvtooth-roof  building,  so  as  to 
get  perfect  light  and  steady  floor. 

A  typical  factory  is  illustrated  beloAV,  shoAving  part  of  the  build- 
ing as  four  stories  and  part  as  one  story.    The  long  building  in 


A  typical  lace  factory  at  Plauen. 

the  background  is  one  of  the  model  tenements  that  have  been  erecte( 
at  Plauen  for  the  special  purpose  of  improving  the  housing  con-^ 
ditions  of  the  workers.  i 

AUTOMATIC  MACHINES  AND  THEIR  COST. 

Plauen  uses  a  good  many  automatic  machines,  and  their  use  is 
increasing.  In  this  respect  they  are  ahead  of  St.  Gall.  Their  cost, 
however,  is  such  that  only  the  larger  firms  can  afford  them,  but  as 
a  larger  production  with  less  Avage  cost  is  secured,  the  machines 
pay  for  themselves.  On  the  pantograph  machine  there  has  to  be| 
employed  a  man  as  pantograph  worker  or  "  stitcher,"  one  girl  to 
watch  the  work,  keep  the  bobbins  filled,  etc.,  and  one  girl  to  put  the 
bobbins  in  the  shuttles.  On  the  automatic  machine  the  stitcher  is 
dispensed  with. 


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IGEKMANY  EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES.  79 
Very  wide  embroidery  machines  are  now  made  by  coupling  to- 
gether two  6|-yard  machines,  so  as  to  be  worked  by  the  same  panto- 
graph.  There  are  a  few  of  these  in  use  at  Plauen,  but  they  are  not 
liked  by  the  operatives. 

At  one  of  the  largest  lace  factories  visited  at  Plauen  were  found 
70  pantograph  and  90  automatic  machines.  The  majority  of  the 
machines  were  5  yards  long,  using  a  double  row  of  needles.  The  4/4 
rapport  machine  (needles  spaced  1  French  inch  or  1.08  English 
inches  apart)  has  168  needles  on  each  row,  the  6/4  has  112,  and  the 
12/4  has  56  needles  on  each  row.  The  5-yard  pantograph  machines 
cost  this  factory  4,500  marks  and  similar  automatic  machines  8,500 
marks.  The  9-yard  automatic  machines  cost  15,000  marks.  The 
reirular  charge  at  Plauen  for  the  automatic  attachment  is  4,000 
marks. 

SPEED  OF  THE  MACHINES  AND  PAY  OF  THE  STITCHERS. 

The  speed  of  the  embroidery  machines  was  given  by  the  superin- 
fendent  as  120  stitches  a  minute,  but  on  most  of  the  work  90  would 
be  averaged  by  the  best  stitchers,  while  the  automatic  machines  could 
be  counted  on  for  90  to  100.  While  this  is  the  speed  when  working, 
there  is  necessarily  loss  of  time  for  arranging  the  cloth,  repairing 
i&ome  slight  derangement,  etc.,  and  the  actual  production  is  much  less 
than  the  theoretical. 

At  this  factory  the  superintendent  said  that  the  best  stitchers  made 
from  220,000  to  260,000  stitches,  according  to  the  design,  in  a  63-hour 
week.  At  Plauen  the  "  stitches  "  are  given  in  terms  that  mean  just 
double  the  terms  at  St.  Gall.  Thus  at  St.  Gall  the  work  done  when 
a  needle  went  through  and  back  was  called  a  stitch;  at  Plauen  this 
would  be  figured  as  a  double  stitch.  Thus  the  stitches  made  as  above 
would  be  110,000  to  130,000  a  week  at  St.  Gall,  which  is  at  the  rate 
of  about  32  double  stitches  per  minute. 

The  stitcher  was  paid  at  the  rate  of  18  pfennigs  (pfennigs about 
one-fourth  of  a  cent)  per  1,000  stitches,  so  on  the  supposition  that  he 
made  240,000  stitches  a  week  (figuring  on  Plauen  stitches),  he  would 
make  43.20  marks,  or  $10.28.  The  average  stitcher  gets  probably  30 
to  35  marks  a  week.  On  special  work  the  stitch  rate  varies  consid- 
erably and  in  some  cases  is  35  pfennigs  per  1,000  stitches;  the  amount 
of  work  turned  out  on  the  fancy  designs  is  less,  so  that  the  weekly 
wages  are  not  augmented  in  proportion. 

I  WAGES  OF  OTHER  FACTORY  EMPLOYEES. 

The  two  girls  on  a  machine,  the  one  to  watch  the  work  and  the  other 
to  keep  the  small  shuttles  filled,  are  paid,  respectively,  18  and  14 
imarks  per  week.  Their  wages  are  the  same  usually,  whether  working 
on  the  pantograph  machine  operated  by  a  "  stitcher  "  or  on  a  self- 
operated  automatic  machine. 

The  card  punchers  who  operate  the  machines  that  punch  the  holes 
in  the  Jacquard  cards  for  use  on  the  automatic  machines  get  high 
wages.  The  most  expert  can  punch  up  to  6,000  holes  a  day.  As  this 
work  requires  a  well-trained  man,  who  is  both  quick  and  careful,  the 
factories  often  employ  the  men  by  the  year.  At  the  factory  in  ques- 
tion, there  were  six  men  so  employed  who  were  paid  by  piecework 
and  guaranteed  200  marks  a  month.  They  really  made  240  to  300 
marks  a  month. 


80 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  factory,  owing  to  the  curtailed  orders,  ij 
through  depressed  financial  conditions,  was  only  operating  a  few! 
embroidery  machines  and  had  only  one  card  puncher  at  work,  but; 
the  others  were  drawing  their  50  marks  a  week  just  the  same. 

This  factory  in  normal  times  works  an  11-hour  day,  with  8  hours 
on  Saturday,  or  63  hours  a  week.  Factory  employees  are  paid  every 
Friday  and  home  workers  fortnightly. 

EARNINGS  OF  THE  HOME  WORKERS. 

General  scissor  and  needle  work,  such  as  cutting  off  the  threads 
between  the  embroidered  portions,  and  repair  work  are  mostly  done 
at  home.  For  cutting  off  threads  the  rate  is  1  pfennig  per  thread 
running  the  width  of  the  5-yard  piece.  For  sewing  together  collars, 
etc.,  and  for  repairing  net,  etc.,  the  rate  is  18  to  20  pfennigs  per  hour 
for  home  work  and  20  to  22  pfennigs  per  hour  for  factory  work,  so 
that  the  weekly  wages  are  about  12  marks. 

The  lace-machine  work  is  more  concentrated  in  factories  than  is 
the  white  embroidered  work,  though  there  is  a  very  large  number  of 
lace  machines  worked  singly  in  the  homes  or  in  lots  of  two  to  a 
dozen  in  rented  rooms.  In  this  case  the  manufacturer  usually  sup- 
plies the  foundation  material  and  the  design  and  pays  the  man  who 
owns  the  machine,  the  "  Lohnesticker  "  as  he  is  called,  a  fixed  price 
per  thousand  stitches,  and  he  has  to  provide  out  of  this  all  the  costs 
of  manufacture,  including  yarn,  wages,  power,  etc. 

A  great  many  of  these  lohnestickers  work  on  rented  machines,  and 
in  other  cases  they  buy  the  machine  on  the  installment  plan.  The 
latter,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  as  generally  the  case  as  in  Swit- 
zerland. The  present  rate  supposed  to  be  paid  the  lohnesticker  for 
ordinary  standard  work  is  70  pfennigs.  Owing  to  the  depressed  con- 
ditions I  found  some  taking  the  work  as  low  as  56  pfennigs  per 
1,000  single  stitches  (two  rows  at  28  pfennigs  rate  to  the  row),  but 
there  is  no  profit  whatever  at  the  latter  figure. 

MEAGER  PROFITS  OF  THE  COTTAGE  OPERATIVES. 

Figuring  that  the  lohnesticker  gets  off  180,000  single  stitches  on 
each  machine,  which  is  a  good  rate  of  work  for  first-class  stitchers  at 
home,  and  that  he  is  working  on  regular  designs  at  70  pfennigs  per 
1,000  stitches,  he  will  earn  $30  a  week  from  the  factory  for  the  work 
produced  on  each  machine.  His  costs  of  getting  off  this  work  may 
be  figured  as  follows  at  present  rates  of  yarn  and  wages : 


Cost  of  embroidery  and  shuttle  yarn,  say  2  marks  per  1,000  stitches   $8.  57 

Stitcher's  wages,  at  18  pfennigs  per  1,000  single  stitches   7.  72 

Wages  of  machine  hand,  at  3  marl^s  a  day   4. 26 

Rent   .  71 

Electric  power   .47 

Heating,  light,  and  supplies   1. 43 

Interest  and  depreciation   1. 90 

Repair  and  inspection  of  goods   1. 19 

Machine  repairs    .47 

Sick  insurance,  porterage,  and  incidentals   .83 

Allowances  1^  per  cent   .45 


Total  28.00 


This  leaves  the  lohnesticker  only  $2  profit  on  his  machine  for  the 
week's  work,  and  if  the  rate  is  28  pfennigs  per  1,000  stitches  (56 
pfennigs  per  1,000  for  the  piece)  he  is  actually  losing  money,  unless 


GERMANY  EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES.  81 

be  has  only  one  machine  which  he  operates  himself  at  home,  in  which 
sase  by  cutting  all  expenses  down  to  the  minimum  he  can  make  a  very 
5mall  wage.  In  times  like  this  the  hpme  workers  who  depend  on  the 
factory  to  supply  them  with  work  naturally  feel  the  depression  first. 
The  cost  of  operation  varies  according  to  the  conditions  under  which 
the  home  work  is  done,  but  the  foregoing  figures  are  sufficiently 
iccurate  to  give  an  idea  of  the  general  conditions  and  of  the  propor- 
tionate costs  of  ordinary  work. 

RATES  CHARGED  FOR  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER. 

All  of  the  factories  use  electric  power,  as  do  also  a  good  many  of 
'the  lohnestickers.  One  or  two  factories  have  their  own  plant,  but 
the  great  majority  get  their  power  from  the  electric  plant  owned  by 
:he  city,  which  has  a  monopoly  for  supplying  electric  power  within 
the  corporate  limits.  For  light  the  rate  is  70  pfennigs  per  kilowatt 
aour,  less  12^  per  cent,  but  for  power  a  special  rate  is  made  of  20 
pfennigs  per  kilowatt  hour,  less  15  per  cent,  with  the  condition  that 
contracts  must  be  made  by  the  year  on  a  basis  of  at  least  300  kilowatt 
iiours.  A  reduction  of  15  per  cent  is  made  for  every  100  kilowatt 
tiours  up  to  20,000.  If  there  is  an  annual  consumption  of  more  than 
;20,000  kilowatt  hours,  then  the  rate  per  kilowatt  hour  is  reduced  to 
16  pfennigs  flat.  For  current  for  heating  and  for  electro-chemical 
apparatus  an  additional  10  per  cent  is  added  to  the  regular  power 
rates.  The  ordinary  6/4  rapport  pantograph  machine  5  yards  long 
:akes  about  one-fourth  horsepower  and  the  similar  automatic  machine 
learly  one-half  horsepower. 

[Illustrations  of  factories  and  machines,  and  one  sample  of  em- 
broidered work  in  colors,  forwarded  by  Mr.  Clark,  are  on  file  in  the 
Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 


RIBBON  WEAVING* 


MODERN   MANUFACTURING   ^METHODS  COSTS  AND  PROFITS  LARGE  SHIP 

MENT  OF  PRODUCTS  TO  TPIE  UNITED  STATES. 

A  ribbon  loom  uses  a  series  of  shuttles  for  weaving  a  number  oi 
narrow  bands,  and  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  It  is  made  ir 
various  widths  and  divisions,  and  either  with  or  without  attach 
ments,  such  as  leno  and  Jacquard  apparatus,  etc.  The  German  rib 
bon  manufacturers  touch  all  sides  of  the  textile  trade.  They  make 
plain  and  fancy  weaving,  imitate  lace  work,  imitate  embroidery,  imi 
tate  braiding  Avork,  and,  in  fact,  make  everything,  either  plain  oi 
fancy,  that  can  be  woven  in  narrow  widths. 

The  materials  employed  on  the  ribbon  loom  are  of  all  kinds — cot 
ton,  Avool,  silk,  linen,  jute,  rubber,  gold  and  silver  threads,  etc.  Th(, 
products  include  plain  ribbons  or  tapes  in  plain,  twill,  satin,  or  re[ 
weaves;  name  bands  for  shoe  and  coat  straps,  cap  and  hat  bands,  ha 
forms  of  iron  yarn,  laundry  ribbons,  velvet  edgings,  ribbons  inter 
woven  with  rubber  threads  for  boot  elastics,  tubular  elastics,  bandagi 
holders,  etc. ;  carriage  braids,  cords,  girths,  straps,  belts,  hollow  band 
and  neckties,  Venetian-blind  bands,  ribbon-loom  lace,  handle  anci 
other  stiff  bands,  corset  and  apron  trimmings,  dress  trimmings,  mil 
linery  ribbons  and  trimmings,  fancy  bands  with  either  warp  or  filling- 
figuring,  etc. 

CENTER  OF  RIBB0N-L003I  INDUSTRY. 

Barmen  is  the  center  of  this  specialty  in  Germany,  and  in  1907  thi: 
town  alone  shipped  to  the  United  States  $990,900  worth  of  hat  band 
and  ribbons,  besides  galloons,  trimmin^rs,  edgings,  name  bands,  elasj 
tics,  etc.,  so  that  of  the  product  of  th  ribbon  looms  at  Barmen  ther< 
was  shipped  to  the  United  States  some  $',500,000  worth  in  this  on< 
year.  The  majority  of  these  goods  should  have  been  made  in  th 
United  States. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  German  "  Bandweberein,"  or  ribbon-loon 
manufacture,  is  carried  on  at  Barmen,  but  there  is  also  considerabl 
manufacture  in  the  neighboring  towns  of  Elberfeld  and  Crefeld 
and  a  smaller  center  around  Pulsnitz  and  Gross-Kohrsdorf,  ii 
Saxony. 

Barmen  is  the  center  both  of  the  German  ribbon-loom  work  and  o 
German  braiding  work.  These  specialties  make  Barmen  an  impor 
tant  textile  center,  and  to  show  the  range  of  the  textile  industries  a 
this  place  a  list  of  the  34  textile  industries  of  this  town,  with  its  thre^ 

82 


GERMANY  EIBBON  WEAVING. 


83 


mall  neighbors,  follows,  the  list  being  furnished  by  the  Barmen 
]Ihamber  of  Commerce  as  showing  the  situation  January  1,  1907: 


Pac- 

Oper- 

ci  LI  V  tJa  . 

98 

5,077 

864 

6,974 

13 

2,511 

1 

194 

1 

490 

20 

1 ,176 

43 

577 

9 

1,010 

1 

loo 

193 

5 

73 

1 

433 

1 

737 

3 

600 

5 

414 

3 

56 

44 

S>95 

Industries. 


^raiding  machines  

libbon  loom  

libbon  looms  and  braiding  ma- 
chines  

tibbon  looms  and  braiding  ma- 
chines, dyeing  and  finishing  

libbon  weaving  and  iron-yarn 

manufacture  

'fabrication  of  elastic  goods  

iibbons,  lace,  and  cords  (hand 

work)  

lechanical  weaving  of  mixed 

goods  

lechanical  weaving  and  iron- 
yarn  manufacture  

lechanical  weaving  of  uphol- 
stery goods  

)loth  manufacture  

)arpet  manufacture  

Ipinning,  weaving,  and  print- 
ing  

.'iece  dyeing  and  finishing  

rerman  blue  cotton  prints  

calendering  and  finishing  mixed 

goods  

)yeing  and  finishing  yarn,  lace, 
ribbons,  etc  


Industries. 


Bleaching  and  finishing  yarn, 

lace,  ribbons,  etc  

Finishing  yarn,  lace,  ribbons, 

etc  

Iron  yarn  and  sewing  thread  

Iron  yarn  and  sewing  thread 

and  braiding  work  

Iron  yarn  and  sewing  thread 
with  bleaching  and  finishing.. 
Iron  yarn  and  sewing  thread 

with  cop  dyeing  

Passementerie  fabrication  

Knit  goods  

Coverings  for  smokers'  pipes  

Mechanical  warp  preparation. 
Button  manufacture  f  metal  and 

cloth)  

Turkey-red  dyeing  

Home  spooling  

Combed  knitting  

Chemical  preparation  and  fine 

dyeing  

Renters  of  room  and  power  

Prussian  High  School  for  Tex- 
tile Industry  


Fac- 
tories. 


Total. 


1,254  26 


Oper- 
atives. 


87 
512 


1,228 
273 


29 
927 


280 
11 


The  foregoing  is  divided  up  as  follows :  Barmen,  877  factories  and 
^1,425  operatives;  Schwelm,  364  factories  and  3,921  operatives; 
lagen,  4  factories  and  783  operatives;  Iserlohn,  9  factories  and  500 
)peratives. 


Barmen's  many  textile  industries  are  more  or  less  specialized,  but 
he  main  machines  are  the  ribbon  looms  and  the  braiding  machines. 
Che  contrasting  figures  for  1905  and  1906  in  regard  to  factories,  op- 
ratives,  and  total  wages  are  as  follows : 


Description. 

1905. 

190G. 

■"actories                                                .                  .              number  . 

)peratives                                                          .   _           _  .do 

'otal  wages  .marks.. 
iverage  wages  per  operative.  .  .  ...             .  _  .   .          do  .  . 

1,263 
24,783 
23,786,220 
960 

1,303 
25,991 
25,862,601 
995 

Assuming  three  hundred  working  days  to  the  year  this  is  3  %  marks, 
»r,  say,  80  cents  a  day.  It  will  be  noticed  that  wages  are  gradually  ad- 
vancing, and  also  that  more  workmen  are  being  employed  each  year, 
md  this  is  especially  true  of  the  braiding  and  ribbon  factories. 

The  manufacture  of  ribbons  and  similar  narrow  goods  at  Barmen 
s  a  growing  industry  and  the  sales  thereof  to  the  United  States  are 
nearly  increasing.  The  majority  of  these  goods  should  have  been 
nanufactured  in  the  United  States,  but  the  German  ribbon  manufac- 
urers,  notwithstanding  the  tariff,  seem  to  be  able  to  compete  with 
American  ribbon-loom  manufacturers  in  their  home  market,  partly 
lue  to  the  fact  that  they  cater  to  the  market,  continually  getting  out 
lew  designs  and  manufacturing  special  orders  of  any  size  desired. 
Their  costs  of  manufacture  are  also  less,  but  wages  are  increasing 
nearly.    The  fact  that  the  ribbon  manufacturers  will  take  orders  of 


84 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUKOPE. 


any  size  is  one  factor  that  helps  them  both  at  home  and  abroad.  O 
name  bands,  for  instance,  with  the  name  woven  in  silk  on  cotton  tap 
one-half  inch  wide,  the  I3armen  manufacturers  charge  2  marks  (7 
cents)  for  one  tape  containing  12  dozen  repetitions  of  the  name,  and 
will  punch  a  J acquard  pattern  and  weave  only  one  tape  if  that  is  { 
that  is  ordered. 

TYPES  or  KIBBON  LOOMS. 

There  are  two  main  types  of  ribbon  looms,  the  first  (represent 
by  fig.  15)  having  banks  or  chests  of  shuttles  that  move  in  a  straig 
line  to  the  right  and  left,  like  the  shuttles  of  an  ordinary  loom,  b 
with  much  shorter  travel,  while  the  second  type  (represented  1 
fig.  16)  has  shuttles  that  move  in  semicircles,  the  tracks  of  which  cros 
each  other.    In  a  variation  of  the  first  t3^pe  of  an  ordinary  loom 


Fig.  15. — First  type  of  ribbon  loom. 

made  in  Barmen  the  shuttles  are  arranged  in  banks  one  above  th 
other  and  the  small  warps  run  through  narrow  reeds  placed  in  ope 
ings  in  the  lay  between  each  bank  of  shuttles.  Each  bank  consist 
of  six  shuttles,  but  may  be  of  any  number  from  Iavo  to  eight.  Or 
dinarily  six  shuttles  to  the  bank  is  as  many  as  is  employed,  and  thre 
or  four  is  the  more  common  number.  The  lay  in  an  ordinary  loor 
swings  back  and  forth  only,  but  in  most  ribbon  looms  it  is  also  ar 
ranged  to  slide  up  and  down,  so  as  to  throw  in  a  particular  shuttl 
say  the  bottom,  the  middle,  or  the  top  one,  through  the  center  of  th 
warp  shed. 

The  shuttles  are  moved  by  racks.  The  shuttles  extend  out  hori 
zontally  from  the  lay,  and  a  couple  of  small  gears  fit  into  the  rack  i 
the  shuttle.  These  small  gears  in  turn  are  moved  by  means  of  a  Ion 
rack  placed  either  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  lay  so  as  to  be  clear  o 


GERMANY  RIBBON  WEAVING. 


85 


the  small  warps.  Each  rack  runs  the  length  of  the  lay.  Where  there 
ire  only  two  shuttles  to  the  bank  there  is  one  rack  at  the  top  and  one 
it  the  bottom.  Where  there  are  four  shuttles  to  the  bank  the  lay  is 
^  ihicker,  and  there  are  two  racks  at  the  top  and  two  at  the  bottom 
placed  one  behind  the  other,  the  rear  one  being  deeper,  so  as  to  enable 
It  to  gear  with  the  second  shuttle,  and  if  there  are  six  shuttles  to  a 
Dank  three  racks,  one  behind  the  other  at  top  and  bottom,  etc.,  are 
required.  The  curved-shuttle  looms  are  mainly  used,  without  Jac- 
pards,  for  making  cigar  bundle  bands  and  similar  work,  as  they  are 
;iot  suited  for  fancy  work,  as  is  the  straight  loom. 

COST  AND  OPERATION  OF  LOOMS. 

On  ribbon  looms  making  plain  goods  the  shafts  are  moved  by  cams, 
out  the  larger  portion  of  the  ribbon  looms  have  a  Jacquard  attach- 


FiG.  16.— Second  type  of  ribbon  loom. 


ment.  The  Jacquard  arrangement  is  similar  to  that  of  ordinary 
Jacquard  looms.  For  Avide  looms,  as  shown  in  fig.  15,  there  are  em- 
ployed four  and  sometimes  six  Jacquards.  The  ordinary  ribbon  loom 
is  four  meters  (4.37  yards)  wide,  makes  20  ribbons  at  a  time,  in  three 
colors,  and  is  fitted  with  Jacquard  attachment.  The  present  price  of 
such  a  loom  is  given  me  by  one  of  the  largest  German  manufacturers 
in  this  line  as  1,500  marks  ($357)  at  Crefeld.  The  German  ribbon 
looms  are  much  cheaper  than  the  American.  They  are  also  made 
differently,  for  whereas  the  American  ribbon  loom  is  made  of  iron 
wherever  possible,  not  only  the  gears  and  racks,  but  the  lay  and  frame 
being  of  iron,  the  German  loom  is  made  of  wood,  and  iron  is  only  used 
where  unavoidable.  The  lay,  racks,  frame,  etc.,  of  the  German 
ribbon  loom  are  all  wood,  which  makes  a  lighter  and  cheaper  loom. 
The  German  ribbon-loom  manufacturers  also  claim  that  their  system 
of  rawhide  gears,  interposed  between  the  wooden  racks  in  the  shuttles 


86 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


and  the  long  wooden  racks,  makes  not  only  a  much  more  silent  but  t 
more  lasting  mechanism  than  the  American  loom  with  iron  gean 
working  in  an  iron  rack. 

Ribbon  looms  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  according  to  the' 
purpose  for  which  intended,  from  very  light  looms  for  plain  ribbonsi 
up  to  very  heavy  looms  for  weaving  girths  and  belts.  The  number  ol 
divisions — that  is,  of  separate  warps — and  the  width  may  be  as  de^^ 
sired.  The  widest  looms  are  about  8  meters  (8.75  yards)  ;  possibly 
few  are  over  this.  In  each  wide  loom  there  are  two  independent^ 
operated  lays,  so  that  each  is  two  looms  with  one  breastbeam.  Nol 
only  are  several  Jacquards  employed  for  the  wide  looms,  but  th(i 
cards  may  be  so  arranged  that  each  ribbon  is  of  a  different  design  fron:^ 
that  of  its  neighbor.  Each  of  the  separate  warps  is  wound  on  its  owr! 
spool,  with  separate  spools  for  the  selvages,  but,  according  to  the  pat- 
tern, the  warp  may  be  wound  on  two,  three,  or  more  spools.  This  isj 
especially  necessary  where  portions  of  the  warp  are  under  a  different 
tension  from  that  of  the  others.  The  looms  stand  some  8  feet  high 
and  the  ends  from  the  warp  spools  run  over  carrier  spools  and  dowr! 
under  a  rod  to  the  reed.  Each  warp  thread  or  set  of  threads  has  iti 
own  weight  attachment  to  take  up  the  slack.  ' 

Leno  attachments  are  common  and  have  a  similar  needle  arrange- 
ment of  two  heddle  frames,  one  behind  the  other,  whereby  various 
designs  can  be  produced  in  imitation  of  embroidery  and  similar  work 
Sometimes  on  a  six-shuttle  bank  loom  there  will  be  made  two  ribbons 
one  above  the  other,  each  using  three  of  the  shuttles. 

SPOOLING  AND  OTHER  PROCESSES. 

In  considering  the  work  of  a  ribbon-loom  factory  the  first  opera- 
tion is  spooling.  The  yarn  is  usually  bought  in  hanks,  and  this,  ii 
warp  yarn,  is  wound  from  the  skein  onto  spools  of  the  required  size, 
and  may  be  fitted  up  with  any  number  of  spindles  from  4  to  20.  Some- 
times the  yarn  is  bought  from  neighboring  factories  on  the  spool,  and 
then  a  inimber  of  these  spools  are  wound  together  directly  onto  the! 
warp  spools  to  be  placed  on  the  loom.  Very  frequently  the  factory 
has  no  spoolers,  in  which  case  it  buys  the  yarn  in  the  numbers  andi 
amounts  desired  of  each  and  has  this  spooled  outside  in  an  establish- 
ment that  does  nothing  else.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  the  yarn  dyed.: 
bleached,  or  otherwise  prepared,  the  factory  will  also  have  this  done; 
at  a  special  establishment  and  then  spooled  and  warped  at  anotheii 
establishment  before  they  start  on  their  share  of  the  manufacture.! 
The  largest  factories,  even,  usually  have  some  of  the  processes,  espe-i 
cially  the  dyeing  or  the  bleaching,  carried  on  at  some  place  that  makesf 
a  specialty  of  this  one  process.  The  warp  is  wound  on  large  spools.!* 
while  the  filling  is  wound  onto  small  bobbins  for  the  shuttle.  Thei 
thread  from  a  bobbin  goes  through  spring  hooks  on  either  side  oi 
the  inside  shuttle  circle  and  then  horizontally  out  through  the  holei 
at  the  bottom.  The  wires  at  the  top  press  on  the  bobbin  to  keep  it  from] 
unwinding  too  fast. 

After  weaving,  the  ribbons  are  inspected,  calendered,  cut  up  in  de- 
sired lengths,  and  then  put  up  for  the  market,  being  first  wound  on 
pasteboard,  then  packed  in  little  boxes,  wrapped  in  paper,  and  these 
packed  in  larger  boxes,  ticketed,  and  shipped. 

The  ribbon  looms  at  Barmen  are  partly  run  by  steam  and  partly 
by  electric  power.    Some  are  operated  by  direct-connected  motors. 


GERMANY  RIBBON  WEAVING. 


87 


The  speed  of  the  loom  varies  widely  according  to  the  width  of  loom, 
:he  number  of  ribbons  being  made,  the  number  of  shuttles,  the  fine- 
ness of  the  yarn,  the  pattern,  etc.,  and  may  be  from  80  to  200  picks  a 
minute.  For  ordinary  ribbons  using  Jacquard  attachment  the  speed 
many  be  given  as  120  picks  per  minute. 

There  is  a  machine  for  gluing  together  warp  threads  for  making 
tvhat  is  called  "  baft  ribbons."  These  ribbons  are  used  in  place  of 
twine  for  tying  purposes,  and  as  artificial  bast  or  straw  for  making 
hats,  etc. 

YARN  TWISTING  AND  NUMBERINC  WEAVERS'  WAGES. 

The  cotton  yarn  used  is  numbered  the  same  as  the  English,  though 
the  French  half  metric  system  is  occasionally  used.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  terms  "  right-hand  twist "  and  "  left-hand  twist " 
mean  in  Germany  exactly  opposite  to  what  they  do  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  United  States  "  right-hand  "  yarn  is  yarn  of  which 
the  twist  slopes  up  to  the  right  similar  to  the  threads  of  an  ordinary 
right-hand  screw.  Germans  call  this  "  left-hand  "  yarn  for  the  rea- 
son that  if  held  in  the  hand  it  has  to  be  twisted  to  the  left  to  twist  it 
together,  whereas  twisting  to  the  right  unwinds  it. 

Considerable  lustered  or  iron  yarn  is  used  in  weaving  hat  forms, 
etc.,  and  the  export  of  these  forms  to  the  United  States  is  a  big  indus- 


a  a  b  b 

Fig.  17.— a,  a,  German  right-hand  twist;  b,  b,  American  right-hand  twist. 


try.  There  are  separate  factories  at  Barmen,  Blankenstein,  Breyell, 
Crefeld,  and  Langerfeld  for  making  this  iron  yarn.  The  yarn  is 
heavily  sized  and  glazed  and  thereby  becomes  heavier  and  harder, 
but  the  length  remains  the  same.  This  iron  yarn  is  reckoned  differ- 
ently from  the  English  numbering,  which  is  usually  employed  for 
cotton  yarns  in  Germany,  as  a  hank  is  taken  as  275  meters  (300 
yards). 

For  numbering  the  metal  threads  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  aluminum, 
etc.,  which  are  usually  wrapped  around  a  central  thread  of  flax  or 
cotton,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  fixed  rule.  For  50/2  gold 
thread  there  are  10,000  meters  to  the  kilo  and  for  70/3  gold  thread 
there  are  10,500  meters  to  the  kilo.  The  india  rubber  employed  for 
interweaving  with  cotton  and  silk  to  make  garters  and  other  elastics 
comes  in  hanks  of  66  yards  to  the  bundle.  The  number  of  these 
elastic  threads  is  based  on  the  thickness  of  the  cross  section — that  is, 
the  number  that  can  be  laid  side  by  side  in  an  English  inch. 

Wages  in  Barmen  and  the  surrounding  section  are  higher  than  in 
most  other  textile  centers  of  Germany.  Ordinary  weavers  will  aver- 
age 60  to  80  cents  a  day  and  weavers  on  special  work  will  get  as  high 
as  $1.43  a  day  or  more. 


88 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


COST  OF  MANUFACTURING  RIBBONS. 

The  following  condensed  translation  is  taken  from  a  handbook) 
recently  issued  by  Prof.  Otto  Both,  of  the  Prussian  Textile  High| 
School,  at  Barmen,  and  is  reproduced  here  because  it  serves  very  welllj 
to  illustrate  the  method  of  figuring  used  by  the  German  manuf  ac- 1 
turers  in  getting  at  the  cost  of  manufacture  of  a  special  ribbon  andfi 
also  shows  how  they  have  to  shift  their  calculations  between  yards,* 
meters  (meter=39.37  inches),  pounds,  and  kilos  (kilo=2.2  pounds) : 

We  will  figure  on  the  cost  of  making  a  thousand  meters  of  a  fancy  ribbon  made ' 
up  of  colored  cotton,  dyed  cotton,  and  dyed  silk  thread,  using  white  cotton  filling. ; 
There  will  be  required  three  warps,  the  first  with  IG  ends  of  No.  100/2s  \ 
(English  numbering)  colored  cotton  yarn,  the  second  with  84  ends  No.  60/2s 
(English  numbering)  white  cotton  yarn,  and  the  third  with  40  ends  No.  46/48 
(International  numbering)  China  organzin  colored  silk  thread.    For  filling  we  ' 
will  use  No.  50s  single  (English  numbering).    The  pattern  is  such  that  to 
make  1,000  meters  finished  ribbon  there  will  be  required  1,100  meters  of  the  16-  * 
thread  warp,  1,120  meters  of  the  84-thread  warp,  and  1,050  meters  of  the  40- 
thread  silk  warp.    To  these  lengths  we  will  add  5  per  cent  to  cover  the  waste 
in  spooling,  warping,  etc. 

We  will  first  find  the  weight  of  the  materials  to  be  used:  First  warp, 
16X1,100—17,600+5  per  cent=18,480  meters.  100/2  ply  is  the  same  as  50s 
single  in  weight,  and  a  hank  is  768  meters  (837  yards),  so  we  have  for  the 
weight  of  this  warp  0.48  pound,  or  0.218  kilo. 

Second  warp,  84X1,120=94,080+5  per  cent=98,784  meters.    This  divided  by 
30X768  gives  the  weight  of  the  second  warp  as  4.29  pounds,  or  1.946  kilos. 

Third  warp,  40X1,050=42,000+5  per  cent=44,100  meters  46/48  silk  yarn.  As  - 
this  is  International  numbering,  we  divide  44,100  by  10,000  and  have  the  weight  ' 
as  4.41X47  grams=207  grams. 

Filling. — The  length  of  filling  required  can  only  be  ascertained  by  actual  trial. 
In  this  case  for  1,000  meters  of  finished  ribbon  there  is  required  112,000  meters 
of  filling,  and  to  this  we  will  add  4  per  cent  for  waste  allowance,  so  that  the  ! 
actual  length  of  filling  needed  will  be  116,480  meters.    The  number  is  50s  i 
English  single,  so  the  weight  will  be  116,480  divided  by  50X768,  or  3.03  pounds, 
which  is  1.374  kilos.  I 

Part  of  the  yarn  has  to  be  dyed  and  another  part  bleached,  and  then  the  fill- 
ing wound  on  bobbins  and  the  warp  spooled  and  warped.  To  obtain  the  costs 
per  pound  of  the  materials  ready  for  the  looms,  we  will  figure  as  follows : 


Description. 

Marks. 

Description. 

Marks. 

One  pound  100/2Si  in  the  gray    

Dyeing-  per  pound  (90  pfennigs  per  kilo)_- 
Spooling  per  pound  (50  pfennigs  per 
100  hanks)  _—    _.   

3.20 
.405 

.25 

One  kilo  No.  40  China  organzin  siik_-- 

Dyeing  per  kilo  _  _    _____ 

Spooling  per  kilo  _              _  _ 

Total  

38.00 
3.60 
2.00 

Total  

43.50 

3.86 
1.80 
.10 
.18 

One  pound  filling  No.  50s  water  in  the 
gray  

One  pound  60/2s  in  the  gray  _   

2.80 
.10 

.30 

Bleaching  per  pound  (1  mark  per  10- 
pound  bundle   _   

Bleaching  per  pound   _  __         _  _ 
Spooling  per  pound  (60  pfennigs  per 
100  hanks)  

Spooling  per  pound  (60  pfennigs  per 
100  hanks)       . 

Total    

Total    

3.20 

2.08 

When  the  warping  is  made  up,  as  in  this  case,  of  different  yarns  the  warping 
is  usually  based  on  the  10,000  meters,  the  price  ranging  from  5  to  10  pfennigs. 
In  the  present  case  we  are  charged  7^  pfennigs  per  10,000  ends  of  the  cotton  ply 
yarns,  and  6  pfennigs  per  10,000  ends  of  the  silk  yarn.  The  first  warp  has 
16X1,100,  or  17,600  meters  length,  and  the  second  84X1,120,  or  94,080  meters, 
making  a  total  length  of  cotton  ply  yarn  of  111,680  meters,  which,  at  7^  pfennigs 
per  10,000  meters,  is  84  pfennigs  (20  cents).  The  silk  yarn  has  a  length  of 
40X1,050,  or  42,000  meters,  which,  at  6  pfennigs  per  10,000  meter,  is  25  pfennigs 
(5.95  cents),  making  the  total  cost  of  warping  the  three  warps  1.09  marks 
(26  cents). 


GERMANY  RIBBON  WEAVING. 


89 


WEAVING  AND  PLACING  ON  MARKET. 

The  next  process  is  weaving?.  We  will  calculate  on  400  picks  per  10  centi- 
meters (a  little  over  100  picks  to  the  inch),  and  that  the  loom  runs  120  picks  to 
the  minute  and  makes  64  ribbons  at  the  same  time.  In  ten  working  hours  the 
loom  will  make  120X60X10,  or  72,000  picks,  and  allowing  25  per  cent  for  loss 
of  time  by  stoppage  the  daily  production  will  be  54,000  picks ;  dividing  this  by 
4,000  picks  to  the  meter  gives  13.5  meters  per  division  per  day  or,  say,  80  meters 
a  week  and  64X80,  or  5,120  meters,  of  ribbon  to  the  loom  per  week.  If  we  give 
the  work  out  to  a  "  meisterlohn  "  (a  man  who  owns  a  few  looms  and  does  weav- 
ing by  contract  when  the  material  is  supplied),  he  will  figure  on  a  charge  of  60 
marks  ($14.28)  per  loom  per  week,  and  guarantee  the  75  per  cent  production 
above.  The  cost  of  weaving  the  1,000  meters  we  desire  will  be  about  12  marks 
:  ($2,856). 

I  Next,  we  have  the  cost  of  knotting  the  fringes,  if  there  are  any,  the  calender- 
ing and  cutting  up,  inspecting,  etc.,  which  we  can  figure  on  as  2  marks  (47.6 
cents)  per  1,000  meters. 

Next  comes  the  cost  of  putting  up  for  market,  the  reeling  on  cardboard,  pack- 
ing in  paper,  ticketing,  etc. ;  12  meters  are  put  into  each  small  box  and  ticketed, 
and  one  dozen  of  these  wrapped  in  paper,  ticketed,  and  put  in  larger  pasteboard 
boxes.  Figuring  on  10  of  these  boxes,  or  1,440  meters,  we  find  the  costs  of 
putting  up,  etc.  to  be  about  as  follows : 


Description. 


100  dozen  reels  at  6  pfennigs  a  dozen 
(reeling  wages)  

1,200  small  tickets,  100  packets,  at  50 
pfennigs  

100  dozen,  binding  and  folding  up 
(workers'  wages)  


Marks. 

6.00 
6.00 
1.50 


Description. 


Paper,  4  dozen  to  one  sheet,  costing  5 

pfennigs  

Binding  thread,  half  kilo  per  dozen__- 
100  tickets  

Total  


Marks. 


1.25 
.34 

.25 


15.34 


This  was  for  1,400  meters ;  so  for  1,000  meters  the  cost  would  be.  10.05  marks 
($2,535).  In  this  case,  as  we  are  figuring  on  the  work  being  given  out  for 
weaving,  we  do  not  have  to  consider  cost  of  power,  etc.,  but  for  the  general 
company  expenses  we  will  allow  7^  per  cent.  The  manufacturing  costs  of  this 
1,000  meters  (1,090  yards)  of  ribbon  will  be  found  to  be  as  follows: 


Description. 


Cost  first  warp,  0.48  pound,  at  3.86 

,  marks  per  pound  

Cost  second  warp,  4.29  pounds,  at  2.08 

marks  per  pound  

Cost  third  warp,  0.207  kilo,  at  43.50 

marks  a  kilo  

Warping  

Cost  filling,  3.03  pounds,  at  3.20  marks 

per  pound  


Marks. 

1.85 

8.92 

9.00 
1.09 

9.70 


Description . 


Marks. 


Weaving  cost  

Finishing  costs  

Costs  of  putting  up  for  market 

Company  costs,  7 J  per  cent  

Total  


12.00 
2.00 
10.65 


55.21 
4.14 


59.35 


This  shows  a  total  of  $14.12,  or  1.41  cents  a  meter.  In  selling  there  will  be 
given  a  4  per  cent  cash  discount,  and  the  selling  agent  will  charge  5  per  cent 
commission,  so  to  the  above  59.35  marks  there  will  have  to  be  added  9  per  cent, 
making  the  gross  cost  price  64.69  marks  ($15.40). 

To  the  above  should  be  addeci  the  manufacturers'  profit,  which  will 
vary  according  to  the  demand  and  the  competition,  and  if  it  is  sold 
to  a  foreign  country  there  will  need  to  be  considered  the  transporta- 
tion costs  and  the  duty.  The  above,  however,  gives  an  idea  of  the 
method  of  figuring  employed  and  the  comparative  costs. 

[Many  pictures  illustrating  the  machinery  described  in  the  fore- 
going report,  as  well  as  German  ribbons,  may  be  seen  at  the  Bureau 
of  Manufactures.] 


KNIT  GOODS  MANUFACTURE. 


CONCENTRATION,  GROAVTII,  AND  PRESENT  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  INDUSTRY —  f 
KNITTING  MACHINES  AND  PRODUCTS. 

While  the  manufacture  of  knit  goods  is  a  larger  industry  in  the 
United  States  than  in  Germany,  in  1905  the  United  States  bought  ] 
from  Germany  knit  goods  to  the  value  of  $5,945,807,  arid  this  was  in-  i 
creased  to  $7,267,617  in  1906,  and  to  $8,384,830  in  1907.    About  90 
per  cent  of  the  knit  goods  bought  abroad  by  the  United  States  in  1907 
came  from  Germany. 

The  knit-goods  industry  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of 
German  cotton  manufacturing,  and  the  export  trade  in  this  line  is 
very  large.  The  United  States  is  the  best  customer,  especially  for 
hosiery,  and  takes  large  quantities,  though  owing  to  the  great  increase 
of  knitting  in  the  United  States  and  to  the  growing  demand  from 
other  sections  of  the  world  the  proportion  taken  by  the  United  States 
is  less  than  formerly. 

The  bulk  of  the  German  knit  goods  is  made  in  and  around  Chem- 
nitz, but  Limbach  has  also  become  an  important  center  for  knitted  un- 
derwear, Thallmein  for  gloves,  Apolda  in  Thuringia  for  shawls,  caps, 
and  general  knitted  goods,  while  other  smaller  places  are  centers  for 
certain  special  lines. 

EARLY   CONCENTRATION   OF  THE  INDUSTRY  AT  CHEMNITZ. 

The  golden  years  of  the  Chemnitz  knit-goods  industry  was  the 
period  before  the  expiration  of  the  patent  on  the  knitting  goods  ma- 
chine invented  by  Cotton.  Favored  at  that  time  by  the  quick  growth 
in  the  use  of  knit  goods  abroad,  especially  in  North  America,  the  rapid 
perfecting  of  means  of  communication,  and  the  active  development  of 
great  export  houses  in  Chemnitz,  and  aided  by  the  passing  of  certain 
competitive  districts  abroad,  especially  those  in  England,  Chemnitz 
and  the  neighboring  towns  in  the  valleys  of  the  Uskaberger  Moun- 
tains became  active  in  this  industry  and  developed  it  at  a  rapid  pace. 

Even  before  this,  the  fact  that  the  manipulation  of  the  old  machines 
required  a  slow  apprenticeship  from  youth,  together  with  the  natural 
disinclination  of  Saxons  to  wander,  had  a  tendency  to  concentrate  and 
retain  the  industry  in  one  place.  The  machine  invented  by  Cotton 
tended  to  the  erection  of  large  factories  and  still  more  centralization, 
because  its  costliness,  its  heavy  requirements  for  power,  and  its  diffi- 
cult manipulation  rendered  it  unsuited  for  small  users.  Its  introduc- 
tion marked  the  start  of  the  great  central  factories  in  Chemnitz.  The 
protection  given  by  patent  rights,  and  the  continually  increasing 
market  abroad,  enabled  Chemnitz  to  perfect  the  organization  of  the 
working  force  in  these  big  factories  and  tended  still  more  to  give  them 
the  undisputed  leadership  in  this  line. 

90 


GERMANY  KNIT-GOODS  MANUFACTURE. 


91 


GROWTH  OF  COMPETITION  AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD. 

Since  the  expiration  of  the  Cotton  patent,  in  1883,  new  competitors 
have  arisen,  especially  in  the  United  States,  and  Chemnitz  no  longer 
enjoys  the  complete  supremacy  formerly  accorded  it.  The  manu- 
facturers of  knit  goods  in  other  countries  quickly  availed  themselves 
of  the  coveted  rights,  and  were  aided  by  the  German  makers  of  knit- 
ting machines,  who,  anxious  for  a  market  for  their  increasing  produc- 
tion, were  ready  to  sell  to  any  country  and  to  give  any  terms  required. 
A  reduction  in  wages  at  Chemnitz  at  this  time,  brought  about  by  the 
breaking  down  of  the  knitting  monopoly  there,  also  tended  to  scatter 
the  workers  abroad  and  to  give  their  competitors  the  skilled  operatives 
of  whom  they  were  in  need.  There  has,  therefore,  been  increasing 
competition  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  profits  have  become  much 
reduced. 

With  all  these  difficulties,  however,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
wages  are  rising,  the  industry  is  a  prosperous  and  a  growing  one, 
and  with  the  aid  of  their  cheaply  paid  but  highly  skilled  workmen 
operating  the  most  improved  machines  they  are  able  to  compete 
with  foreign  factories  in  their  home  markets,  notwithstanding  high 
tariff  rates. 

FOREIGN  MARKETS,  TRADE  5HETH0DS,  AND  TERMS  OF  SALE. 

At  Chemnitz  hosiery  is  the  great  specialty,  and  after  that  knitted 
gloves  and  underwear.  According  to  the  president  of  the  Wirk- 
waren  Fabrikante  Vereinigung  von  Chemnitz  und  Umgegend,  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  Chemnitz  output  of  hosiery  finds  a  market  in  the 
United  States,  though  this  is  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  total  than  in 
former  times.  At  present  this  dependence  on  the  American  market 
has  resulted  in  a  large  number  of  the  factories  running  short  time 
or  closing  down,  due  to  the  financial  conditions  in  that  country. 

In  knitted  gloves  England  is  Germany's  best  customer,  with  the 
United  States  second.  The  underwear  made  at  Chemnitz  is  mainly 
for  home  use,  but  considerable  amounts  are  taken  by  neighboring 
nations  of  the  Continent,  and  smaller  amounts  sent  to  England  and 
the  United  States.  The  Germans  cater  to  the  particular  require- 
ments of  each  country,  each  class  of  goods  being  especially  made 
for  the  market  in  which  it  is  to  be  sold,  and  the  fact  that  they  do  so, 
and  recognize  that  goods  made  for  Germany  could  not  be  sold  in 
the  United  States,  and  that  goods  made  for  England  could  not  be 
sold  in  Italy,  has  much  to  do  with  their  success  as  exporters. 

In  selling  hosiery  and  other  knit  goods  the  usual  terms  are  for 
cash,  less  4  or  5  per  cent  discount.  The  manufacturers  sell  direct 
to  large  commission  houses  at  Chemnitz  and  to  buyers  established 
there  or  to  traveling  buyers.  There  are  88  American  houses  repre- 
sented at  Chemnitz.  The  larger  of  these  pay  cash,  and  others  give 
bills  of  exchange  on  London.  A  few  buy  on  open  account  and  a  few 
remit  money  on  receipt  of  goods. 

STYI.ES  OF   HOSIERY  KNITTING   MACHINES  IN  USE. 

The  makers  of  knitting  machines  at  times  make  larger  profits  than 
do  the  knit-goods  manufacturers,  but  their  business  is  subject  also  to 
fluctuations.  A  number  of  Chemnitz  knitting^  machines  are  sold  to 
manufacturers  in  the  United  States.  The  prices  of  such  machines 
vary,  but  the  present  price  on  a  16-division  Cotton  machine  is  7,000 


92 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


marks  ($1,666).  Such  a  machine  will  make  12  dozens  of  ladies'  hose 
or  26  dozens  of  socks  in  ten  and  one-half  hours,  running  50  to  60 
courses  per  minute  for  plain  fabrics.  For  striped  fabrics  the  speed 
will  be  reduced  to  40  to  46  courses  per  minute. 

There  are  two  principal  systems  employed  in  making  hosiery,  the 
"  full-fashioned "  and  the  "  seamless."  In  the  full-fashioned  the 
body  of  the  stocking  is  knitted  out  flat  on  a  machine  which  makes  a 
dozen  or  more  at  a  time,  and  then  these  are  sewed  together.  The 
seamless  stockings  are  made  on  a  circular  knitting  frame.  The  first 
system  is  most  used  in  Germany  and  the  second  in  the  United  States. 
The  curves  can  be  better  obtained  by  the  first  system,  and  the  cost  of 
operation  is  usually  cheaper,  but  a  seam  is  left  where  the  parts  are 
joined  together. 

At  first  hosiery  was  made  at  Chemnitz  on  hand  machines,  and  these 
are  still  used  in  the  more  remote  sections  of  Saxony.  Then  there  were 
used  small  Paget  frames,  and  now  there  are  used  the  Cotton  frames, 
making  12  to  24  stockings  at  a  time.  On  most  grades  the  managers 
have  found  by  experience  that  a  20-stocking  machine  is  the  widest 
that  a  worlvinan  can  manage  efficiently,  and  on  specialties  this  number 
has  to  be  much  reduced. 

Formerly  the  demand  was  for  heavy  goods,  but  to-day  light  hosiery 
and  underwear  sell  the  best,  while  mercerized  and  fancy  effects  are 
very  popular.    In  knitted  gloves  the  demand  is  for  longer  styles. 

YARN  SUPPLY  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  NUMBERING. 

Hosiery  is  made  mostly  from  yarns  ranging  from  10s  to  32s,  but 
some  is  used  Tip  to  100s,  and  even  in  smaller  amounts  up  to  200s.  The 
majority  is  single,  but  some  is  doubled.  For  knit  goods  in  general 
18s  to  60s  single  cops  are  used.  A  large  amount  of  Egyptian  yarn  is 
employed  in  this  trade.  The  yarns  required  are  mainly  furnished  by 
Saxony,  but  there  is  a  large  amount  bought  from  England  and 
smaller  amounts  from  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  other  sections.  Vi- 
gogne and  imitation  vigogne  yarn,  made  of  cotton  and  wool  or  wool 
waste  or  made  of  cotton  and  cotton  waste,  is  used  in  cheap  under- 
wear and  to  some  extent  in  stockings. 

In  buying  and  figuring  on  cotton  yarns  at  Chemnitz  the  numbering 
is  almost  entirely  by  the  English  system  of  the  number  of  840-yard 
(768  meters)  hanks  contained  in  a  pound.  To  a  much  smaller  extent 
there  is  used  the  metric  or  decimal  system  of  numbering,  according  to 
the  number  of  hanks  of  1,000  meters  contained  in  1,000  grams.  In 
worsted  yarn  there  are  used  two  systems  of  numbering,  the  German, 
which  makes  the  worsted  hank  the  same  as  the  cotton  hank  of  768 
meters,  or  840  yards,  and  the  English  system,  which  gives  a  worsted 
hank  a  length  of  only  560  yards,  so  that  in  buying  worsted  yarns  the 
Saxon  manufacturer  always  specifies  whether  long  or  short  reel. 
For  woolen  yarns  the  same  numbering  as  for  short  hanks  in  worsteds 
is  generally  used.  A  German  authority  says  that  as  woolen  yarns 
require  about  15  per  cent  of  oil  in  spinning,  and  worsteds  as  spun 
in  England  a  very  small  quantity,  when  the  former  is  wound  it  is 
from  12  to  15  per  cent  finer  than  the  latter,  the  sizes  being  always 
calculated  from  the  weight  of  the  yarn  in  oil. 

MEANING  OF  "  GAGE  "  AS  APPLIED  TO  MACHINES. 

Knitting  machines  are  usually  designated  according  to  the  "  gage," 
but  this  term  has  a  different  meaning  in  England,  in  France,  and 


GEKMANY  KNIT-GOODS  MANUFACTURE. 


93 


in  Germany.  The  knitting  needles — that  is,  the  frame  or  hooked 
needles — are  fastened  in  "  leads  "  made  of  a  mixture  of  lead  and 
tin,' usually  two  needles  to  a  lead. 

In  England  the  gage  or  fineness  of  a  frame  signifies  the  number 
of  leads,  each  containing  two  needles,  which  lie  in  a  space  of  3 
inches.  A  No.  24  gage  machine  therefore  has  2  times  24  or  48 
needles  to  3  inches,  which  is  16  needles  to  the  English  inch. 

In  France  they  first  used  the  same  system  based  on  3  of  the  old 
Paris  inches,  but  they  now  use  two  gages,  "  gros  "  and  "  fin,"  based 
on  3  French  inches,  a  French  inch  being  one  thirty-sixth  of  a  me- 
ter (1  meter— 39.37  inches).  This  French  inch  has  come  into  use 
because  of  the  inconvenience  of  the  decimal  numbering  of  the  meter 
for  divisions  into  twelfths,  etc.  The  "  jauge  gros "  is  used  for 
gage  numbers  up  to  27s,  and  the  "  jauge  fin  "  for  gage  numbers  from 
20  up,  the  first  meaning  the  number  of  two-needle  leads  in  a  distance 
of  3  French  inches,  and  the  latter  the  number  of  three-needle  leads  in 
a  distance  of  3  French  inches. 

In  Germany  they  sometimes  use  the  French  system  of  numbering, 
which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  knitting  was  first  introduced  from 
France,  and  some  factories  use  the  English  system,  but  owing  to  the 
inconvenience  of  both  the  majority  of  the  Saxon  machines  are  now 
based  on  a  gage  which  is  the  number  of  needles  to  a  Saxon  inch, 
which  is  a  more  direct  and  simple  method  than  either  of  the  others. 
Thus  24-gage  Saxon  means  24  needles  to  the  Saxon  inch. 

The  French  inch  is  equal  to  1.0936  English  inches,  and  the  Saxon 
inch  is  equal  to  0.9291  of  an  English  inch,  so  No.  24  gage  would  mean, 
according  to  the  various  systems,  the  following  number  of  needles  to 
an  English  inch :  English,  16 ;  French  gros,  14.63 ;  French  fin,  21.95 ; 
Saxoii,  25.83. 

In  Saxony  the  gages  run  from  24  to  51,  the  machines  in  common 
use  having  gages  (Saxon)  of  30,  33,  36,  or  39.  In  England  the  gages 
(English)  in  common  use  are  24  and  27. 

FACTORY  OWNERSHIP,  EMPLOYEES,  HOURS,  AND  WAGES. 

The  Saxon  knitting  factories  are  all  private  concerns,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  joint  stock  company,  which  is  English  owned.  The 
managers  say  that  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  knitting  is  a  specialized 
industry,  and  that  in  these  days  of  close  competition  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  man  at  the  head  who  is  vitally  interested  in  the  success  of  the 
business  and  untrammeled  by  any  outside  authority.  It  may  also  be 
a  factor  that  stock  companies  have  to  publish  in  newspapers  accounts 
of  their  standing  while  private  companies  do  not.  The  capital  in  a 
knit-goods  business  is  not  as  important  as  is  the  management. 

Some  factories  at  Chemnitz  pay  employees  weekly  and  others 
fortnightly;  usually  one  week's  wages  are  held  back.  The  hours  of 
work  are  either  61,  60,  or  59,  more  commonly  the  last,  and  the  fac- 
tory runs  from  7  to  12  o'clock,  with  fifteen  minutes  intermission,  and 
from  1  to  6.30  o'clock,  with  fifteen  minutes  intermission.  They  do  not 
usually  close  on  Saturday  afternoons,  but  stop  work  one  hour  earlier. 

Wages  in  the  knit-goods  business  in  Saxony,  while  low  as  compared 
with  other  sections,  are  increasing,  and  owing  to  the  great  demand 
for  female  labor  the  wages  of  the  women  are  rising  more  in  propor- 
tion than  those  of  the  men.  In  the  knit-glove  industry  there  has 
been  an  advance  in  most  places  of  from  60  to  100  per  cent  in  the  last 
two  years  alone.   At  the  present  time  wages  are  again  lowered,  but 


94 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


this  is  temporary,  due  to  the  financial  depression,  and  as  the  cost  of 
foodstuffs  is  continually  advancing  labor  costs  will  become  more  and 
more  a  factor  to  be  considered  by  the  Saxon  knitter,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  dense  population  of  Saxony — the  densest  in  Europe — 
has  heretofore  given  them  an  advantage  over  any  of  their  competitors. 
Their  labor  is  at  present,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be,  even  with 
advances  in  the  future,  cheaper  than  that  of  their  rivals  in  Troyes, 
France,  and  Nottingham,  England. 

DIVERSIFIED  CONDITIONS  AFFECT  WAGE  SCHEDULES. 

Labor  unions  in  Saxony  have  endeavored  to  fix  uniform  schedules 
of  wages  for  the  different  classes  of  work  in  the  knit-goods  industry, 
and  in  this  they  have  had  the  good  will  of  some  of  the  manufacturers, 
but  owing  to  the  different  makes,  sizes,  and  speeds  of  the  machines, 
varying  the  production  of  each  worker,  and  also  to  the  many  varia- 
tions in  the  methods  of  work  and  to  the  great  number  of  special 
varieties  of  goods  made,  it  has  been  found  thus  far  too  difficult  to 
generalize.  There  is,  therefore,  not  the  slightest  uniformity  in  re- 
gard to  the  wages  paid,  each  manufacturer  getting  his  help  as  cheaply 
as  he  can,  and  every  time  he  introduces  a  slight  variation  or  starts 
on  some  new  specialty  there  is  a  period  of  seesawing  until  the  re- 
muneration to  be  paid  is  steadied  temporarily. 

Between  two  factories  working  side  by  side  on  the  same  general 
class  of  goods  there  is  frequently  to  be  found  a  wide  variation  in 
wages  paid,  according  to  whether  the  machines  used  are  old  or  new, 
the  size  and  speed  of  the  machines,  the  popularity  of  the  manager, 
and  the  privileges  he  accords  workers,  etc.  Various  managers  of 
whom  I  inquired  as  to  average  prices  paid  said  that  they  knew  their 
own  prices  and  that  of  a  few  of  their  competitors,  but  that  they  had 
but  a  vague  idea  as  to  what  could  be  considered  average  wages  for 
the  various  classes  of  goods. 

To  show  the  variations  in  wages  and  the  minuteness  Avith  which 
such  wages  have  to  be  adjusted,  even  in  one  factory  running  on  a 
limited  variety,  I  have  obtained  the  following  prices  now  being  paid 
in  a  hosiery  factory  where  the  operations  were  as  follows:  Spooling 
yarn,  knitting  leg,  running  on  foot,  knitting  foot,  heeling  and  toeing, 
seaming,  and  mending.  The  dyeing  and  jfinishing  are  done  outside. 
The  prices  are  all  given  in  pfennigs,  oAving  to  the  difficulty  of  giving 
the  equivalents  in  cents  Avithout  too  many  decimals.  To  change 
pfennigs  into  cents,  multiply  by  0.238. 


GEKMANY  KNIT-GOODS  MANUFACTURE. 

SPOOLING. 
[Wajres  in  pfennifjs,  per  pound  English.] 


95 


:  Yarn  numbers  (English)  \  8-16 


Cotton  cops: 

Spooler  

Rewinder   

On  patent  winder  

Wool  cops: 

Spooler  

Rewinder  

On  patent  winder  

iSkein  yarn,  spooler  on: 

Single  gray  cotton  

Two-ply  gray  cotton  

Single  colored  cotton  — 
Two-ply  colored  cotton. . 

Single  colored  wool  

Two-ply  colored  wool . . . 
Skein  yarn,  rewinder  on: 

Single  colored  cotton  

Two-ply  colored  cotton.. 

Single  colored  wool  

Two-ply  colored  wool  . . . 


16-20 


21-30  31-40 


2  I 
11, 
3 

6,| 

14 

6i 
17 

9 


41-50 


28 


51-60 


71-80 


3J 


14 


81-90 


86 


112 


8  12 


Thread  numbers 


Thread: 

Spoolinggray  skein  thread  .. 
Spooling  colored  skein 

thread  

Rewinding  gray  threa  i  on- 
to cheeses  

Rewindingcolored  thread . . . 
Rewinding  lisle  skeins  on- 
to cheeses  , 

Spooling  silk  


2/35 


2  40 


12 


2/60 


2/75 


12i 


2/80 


2/85 


2/90 


2/100  ,2/140 


LEG  MACHINE. 
[Wages  in  pfennigs,  per  dozen  pairs.] 


Gage  

Divisions . 


Women's  gray  cotton  hose: 

With  extra  loose  instep  

Extra  close  knit  

Children's  hose,  all  sizes  less  than 

women's  

Short-leg  stockings  

Extra  for  long  tops: 

In  cotton  

In  wool  

In  lisle  thread  

With  knee  cap  

Gray  and  natural  wool  and  gray 

thread  over  cotton  iache  

Extra  compensation  for  very  fine 

numbers  '  

Clerical  wool  and  colored  feet  and 

rows,  extra  

Extra  marking: 

When  with  striped  apparatus. . 

Without  apparatus   

Heel  and  toe  cap  of  wool  and  col- 
ored, extra  

Under  two  dozen,  extra  

Two  dozen  or  more  

Kneecap,  extra  

Reenforcedseam,  extra  

15  to  1  drop  stitch,  extra.  

Group  drop  stitch,  extra  

Extra  wide  

Opera  lengths  

Size  marks  with  the  hand,  per 

row  extra  

Lot  of  4  dozen  or  less,  extra  


30 


12 


33 


36 


12    16    18  !    8    12    16  18 


12  I  12 

3  I  3 


25 


40  40 


1  i  1 
10  I  10 


10 


12 


12 


10 
12  12 


42 


18 


21 

1/1 

rib. 

rib 

1^ 

12 

65 

70 

2 

2 

10 

10 

5 

5 

5  :  5 
10  10 
12  12 


96  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 

RUNNING  ON  FRENCH  FOOT. 


[Wages  in  pfennigs,  per  dozen  pairs.] 


Gage   

30 

33 

3G 

36 

36 

39 

48> 

12 

12 

12 

iO 

18 

• 

Gray,  cotton  foot: 

10 

11 

12 

15i 

151 

16 

50 

4  to  7i  inches  or  less  ,  

1 

Gray  and  natural  wool  and  gray  thread  over  cotton  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

Woven  with  merino,  extra  

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Clerical  wool  (dark-gray  mixture)  and  colored  over  gray. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

11 

Woven  with  split,  extra  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Striped  over  plain  

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 

2 

2 
2 

2 
2 

Woven  with  drop  stitch,  extra  

FRENCH  FOOT  MAKER. 
Wages  in  pfennigs,  per  dozen  pairs.] 


Gage 


Division!^ 


Gray  cotton  sock,  foot  9  to  12  inches  

Gray  cotton,  woman's,  foot  8  to  10*  inches  

Gray  cotton,  child's,  foot  4  to  9  inches: 

With  1  assistant  

With  2  assistants  

Foot  with  long  border,  extra,  witli  1  assistant  

Gray  and  natural  wool  and  gray  thread  over  cotton . 

39-gage  to  36-gage  goods,  extra  , 

Extra  com7)ensation  for  very  fine  numbers  

Clerical  wool  and  colored,  extra  

1  30  and  1/36  clerical  wool,  extra  

Heel  and  toe  cap  from  wool  and  colored,  extra  

Striped  over  plain  , 

Half  sole,  extra  

Split  sole,  including  heel  and  toe  cap,  extra  

15  by  1  drop  stitch,  extra  

Group  drop  stitches,  over  plain  

Size  marks,  extra  

Lot  of  four  dozen  or  less,  extra  


30 


15 


83 


HEELER. 
1  Wages  in  pfennigs,  per  doz(>n  pairs.] 


20 


10 


16 


36 


18 


Gage  

24 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

H 

Ribbed. 

2/1 
!  7 

2/1 

Heel  and  toe,  either  grJfS'  or  white  

Silk  thread  over  grav  

Si 

10 
1 

4 

Hi 
1 
4 

13 
1 
4 

14 
1 
4 

18 

7 

Colored  over  gray,  also  gray  with  colored  toe.. 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

GERMANY — KNIT-GOODS  MANUFACTUBE. 


97 


SEAMING. 
[Wages  in  pfennigs,  per  dozen  pairs.] 


^fage  

ijray  cotton  and  stocking  thread: 

'     Frencii  foot,  00-0  

French  foot,  1-2  

French  foot,  3-4  

French  foot,  5-6  

8-10  inches  

lilk  thread  over  gray  

r  '  Vool  thread  over  gray.  

Colored  thread  over  gray  ,  

lOods  with  heel  and  toe  cap,  extra. . 

otriped  over  plain  

)pera  lengtlis  long  knitted  stockings 
jray  cotton  and  loose  thread: 

French  foot,  4i-5|  inches  

Frencn  foot, 6-7 inches....  

French  foot,  7|-8Unches  .  

French  foot,  9-12  inches  

Vool  over  gray  

'olored  over  gray  

ioods  with  heel  and  toe,  extra  

Striped  over  plain  


30 


33 


36 


39 


42 


48 


Some  of  the  Saxon  knit-goods  manufacturers  are  very  advanced  in 
heir  plans  for  ameliorating  the  condition  of  their  help,  and  besides 
giving  the  boys  time  off  to  attend  technical  instruction,  as  required  by 
aw,  they  also  have  courses  of  instruction  for  the  girls  and  women  in 
lousehold  duties,  including  cooking  and  sewing  classes,  and  besides 
light  classes  some  factories  give  the  girls  a  few  hours  off  each  week 
0  attend  such  classes  in  the  daytime,  the  teachers  also  being  paid  by 
;he  factory.  Most  of  the  factories  provide  a  lunch  room,  with  tables 
uid  chairs,  where  the  employees  can  eat  their  lunch,  and  many  fur- 
lish  food  at  cost  in  such  places. 

[Several  photographs  showing  a  typical  Chemnitz  knitting  mill, 
groups  of  operatives,  and  some  of  the  hosiery  machines  used  accom- 
)anied  Mr.  Clark's  report  and  are  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manu- 
factures.] 

54552—08  7 


REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFHCERS. 


II 


AIX  LA  CHAPELLE. 

WAGES,  FOOD  PRICES,  LIVING  CONDITIONS,  OPERATIVES  AND  MACHINERY. 

Consul  Pendleton  King  furnishes  the  following  information  rela^j 
tive  to  the  textile  industry  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  in  Rhenish  Prussia;! 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  cloth-making  machinery  used' 
in  this  district,  some  of  them  peculiar  to  the  district;  the  old  kinds 
have  mostly  been  replaced,  within  the  last  five  years,  by  improved 
machines  of  Saxon,  Belgian,  English,  and  French  patterns.  Wool- 
washing  machines,  called  here  leviathans,  came  formerly  mostly 
from  Belgium,  but  now  come  mostly  from  Saxony.  ; 

Combing  machinery  is  from  Muelheim-am-Rhein  and  Manchester.! 
The  older  carding  machinery  is  of  local,  Belgian,  French,  or  English 
manufacture,  but  the  improved  kinds  are  of  Belgian  and  German 
(Saxony)  manufacture.  The  older  mule- jennies  are  of  Belgian 
and  English  manufacture,  but  they  are  being  mostly  replaced  by 
automatic  Saxon  machines. 

The  worsted  yarn  mills  mostly  have  crempel  and  carding  ma- 
chinery of  Belgian  manufacture.  Leather  and  cotton  wire  cards 
and  crempel  machines  are  of  Aix  la  Chapelle  manufacture.  , 

Spinning  machines   (excepting  some  old  machinery  of  local,! 
English,  and  Belgian  factories)  are  now  of  the  newest  improved 
types,  a  large  proportion  of  which  are  made  in  Germany  and; 
England.    A  new  kind  introduced  in  this  district  within  a  few  years||j[] 
is  the  pipe-spinning  machinery,  the  so-called  "  metiers  "  of  Belgian  j 
manufacture.  ,  ij. 

Gluing,  spooling,  and  warp  making  and  drying  machinery  are 
used  of  various  makes,  some  Belgian  and  some  German ;  the  newest 
kinds  are  from  Silesia  and  Saxony.  A  great  variety  of  looms, 
mostly  of  the  Jacquard  harness  or  cardboard  type,  of  English, 
French,  Belgian,  Swiss,  and  local  make,  some  of  them  over  twenty 
years  old,  are  used  in  this  district. 

SPEED  OF  MACHINES  OPERATIVES  PER  MACHINE. 

k 

Slow  looms  of  60  to  105  shuttle  movements  a  minute,  most  of  them 
having  a  speed  of  80  to  105,  are  used,  but  they  are  being  gradually!  k\\ 
replaced  by  the  highly  perfected  mechanical  looms  of  Saxony.  Morq 
than  40  per  cent  of  all  the  looms  bought  in  the  last  three  years  were  of 
Saxony  manufacture.  These  Saxon  looms  are  of  an  improved  Jac- 
quard  type,  with  harness  or  pasteboard  cards,  and  a  perfected  contrivi 
ance  for  lifting  and  depressing  the  warp  for  the  passage  of  the  shuttle; 
and  drawing  the  threads ;  they  are  heavy  high-speed  machines,  making, 
between  150  and  180  shuttle  movements  a  minute,  and  are  mostly  sold 
on  the  installment  plan ;  15  per  cent  is  generally  paid  on  delivery,  and 
the  rest  in  yearly  installments  of  20  per  cent.    Such  high-speed  loom& 


bi 


GERMANY  EEPORTS  FKOM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


99 


are  sold  in  this  district,  mounted  and  set  in  motion,  at  from  $200  to 
feoO  each. 

Besides  the  looms  mentioned,  Belgian  and  English  looms  are  run- 
ning in  this  district. 

Cloth  shearing,  bleaching,  dyeing  apparatus,  and  stretching  ma- 
'  chines  are  all  of  German  manufacture.  Fulling  machines  and  card- 
ing machines  are  the  product  of  Aix  la  Chapelle.  Bobbins,  spindles, 
and  shuttles  are  of  German  manufacture,  but  some  of  Dutch  manu- 
facture are  also  in  use. 

No  machines  for  woolen  cloth  are  in  use  here  where  one  operative 
tends  more  than  one  loom.  The  introduction  in  one  mill,  some  two 
ilyears  ago,  of  the  two-loom  system  (i.  e.,  one  operative  tending  two 
ilooms)  met  such  opposition  from  the  Weavers'  Union  that  the  manu- 
facturer stopped  using  them. 

WAGES   AND   LIVING    CONDITIONS   OF  OPERATIVES. 

The  wages  in  the  Aix  la  Chapelle  woolen  mills  are  as  follows: 
The  foreman  of  the  spinning  department  (spinning  master)  from  $9 
to  $14,  the  operatives  from  $5  to  $6,  and  the  other  help,  mostly  girls, 
from  $4.50  to  $5  per  week. 

The  foreman  of  the  weaving  department  (weaving  master)  from 
J9  to  $14,  and  the  regulators  or  setters  from  $7  to  $10.50  per  week. 
Weavers  are  paid  $5  to  $9  per  piece,  and  if  capable  and  diligent  can 
finish  IJ  pieces  of  40  meters  (43.6  yards)  at  $5  or  1  piece  at  $9 
jach  week.    They  earn,  on  an  average,  from  $1  to  $1.40  per  day. 

The  darning  of  pieces  is  done  by  women  and  girls.  The  mistress 
Df  the  darning  department  receives  from  $8  to  $10  and  her  assistants 
from  $5  to  $7  per  Aveek. 

The  working  hours  are  somewhat  variable;  generally  they  run 
from  7  a.  m.  to  12,  and  from  1.30  to  7  p.  m. ;  married  women  or  girls 
vvith  families  are  generally  allowed  to  quit  work  at  G.30. 

More  than  25  per  cent  of  the  factory  operatives  of  Aix  la  Chapelle 
lave  their  homes  in  Holland,  whence  they  come  each  morning  (some 
IS  far  as  30  miles)  and  return  each  evening.  For  this  they  pay  75 
;ents  a  week  for  the  "  workmen's  railroad  ticket."  They  mostly  own 
little  houses  with  J  to  1  acre  of  garden  or  field.  They  have  a  cow  and 
I  few  pigs  or  keep  some  goats,  and  bake  their  own  bread.  They  are 
lUowed  a  few  days  off  each  year  to  till  their  fields.  They  manage  to 
ive  very  cheaply ;  a  family  of  father,  mother,  and  four  children  will 
live  on  60  cents  a  day.  Flour  is  20  per  cent  and  meat  25  per  cent 
iheaper  in  Holland  than  in  Aix  la  Chapelle.  Most  of  those  country 
tiome  dwellers  have  a  savings  bank  account  or  deposit  of  a  few  hundred 
iollars.  They  are  an  honest,  economical  people,  and  the  most  reliable 
)f  the  factory  operatives.  Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  a  further 
l5  per  cent  of  the  operatives,  who  live  in  German  villages  around  the 
ndustrial  cities  of  this  district.  These  also  mostly  own  little  houses 
md  fields,  or  pay  $12  to  $14  rent  per  year  for  such.  They  are  gen- 
Tally  able  to  take  to  farming  occupations  when  factory  work  becomes 
icarce. 

The  life  of  the  textile  workmen  dwell iiig  in  tlu^  city  is  not  so  favor- 
ible.  The  cost  of  living  is  very  high  in  this  city  and  in  towns  of  this 
jonsular  district. 


100 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUEOPE. 


In  this  city  (the  principal  center  of  the  cloth  industry  of  the  dis- 
trict) one- fourth  to  one-fifth  of  the  wages  of  a  weaver  is  needed  for 
rent ;  a  family  generally  pays  for  two  rooms  $4  to  $6  a  month. 


COST  or  LIVING. 


The  retail  prices  of  foodstuffs  and  other  necessaries  of  life  in  Aix  la 
Chapelle  are  as  follows : 


Description, 


Foodstuffs: 


Reefstealf 

Other  parts  of  beef-— 
Ham—    -_- 

Sausage   _ 

Pork  

Horse  meat,  used  by  many  work- 
men's families  

Flour- 
Prime  

Second  quality  

Third  quality  

Potatoes  

Dried  Bosnian  prunes  -. 

Oailiform'a  prunes  

Cheese — 

From  skimmed  milk  and  the 
refuse  from  margarine  but- 
ter  

Best  cheese  


Per  pound. 


Cents. 
27  to  30 
20  to  25 
40  to  55 
10 10>  30 
20  to  25 

10  to  12 


5  to  6 
4  to  5 

3  to  4 
Ito  2 

6  to  8 
15  to  18 


10  to  12 
26  to  30 


Description, 


Foodstuffs— Continued. 

Butter  

Cream  butter  

Eggs— 

In  winter  

In  summer  

Black  rye  bread,  of  coarse, 

crushed  rye  and  refuse  flour, 

4-pound  loaf  

White  bread  1-pound  loaf- 
Milk  per  quart- 
Other  necessaries  of  life: 

Coal  per  lOO  pounds- 

Kindling  wood  do  

Workmen's  shoes,  heavy  nailed, 

per  pair  

Workmen's    labor   suit,  blue 

Nankin  ^  

Keady-made  suit,  of  artificial 

wool  or  threaded  


Per  pound. 


Cents 
10  to  12 
35  to  40 

24  to 

24 

12  to  14 

4  to  6 

5  to  10 

40  to  55 
45  to  55 

125  to  225 

150  to  200 

300  to  800 


While  milk  costs  from  5  to  10  cents  per  quart,  it  is  furnished  free 
to  the  families  of  workingmen  who  have  several  children,  and  for 
less  than  half  price  to  others  whose  ability  to  pay  is  limited,  on  a 
certificate  of  the  family  physician  stating  the  circumstances. 

The  children  of  workingmen  are  also  taken  out  once  a  week  during 
the  summer  by  their  teachers,  and  are  then  given  bread  and  milk 
free  of  charge.  The  workingmen  of  the  better  class  generally 
belong  to  a  singing  or  other  club,  and  many  of  them  raise  pigeons, 
rabbits,  etc. 

There  is  also  a  benevolent  institution  where  the  wives  of  working- 
men,  at  times  of  confinement,  can  remain  three  weeks,  for  from  $3 
to  $5..  Children  from  2  to  6  years  old  can  go  to  a  kindergarten 
during  the  day  until  the  mothers  return  from  the  mills.  There  is 
also  provision  made  for  the  industrial  education,  in  industrial 
schools,  of  children  of  workingmen  whose  means  may  be  limited. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  children  of  the  workingmen  do  not  present  a 
bad  appearance;  they  are  not  poorly  clothed,  and  look  healthy. 
[Samples  of  cloth  manufactured  in  Aix  la  Chapelle,  which  accom 
panied  Consul  King's  report,  are  on  file  for  inspection  in  the  Bureau 
of  Manufactures.] 


BAMBERG.  ; : 

INDUSTRIAL  ACTIVITY  IN   COTTON  MILLS  WORKMEN'S  HOMES. 

Consul  William  Bardel  states  that  there  are  about  20  cotton  mills 
in  the  Bamberg  consular  district,  the  largest  giving  employment  to 
1,500  mechanics.    He  adds : 


A- 


GEKMANY  KEPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


101 


The  wages  paid  to  foremen  are  from  $47.60  to  $83.30  a  month; 
workingmen  under  16  years  of  age  receive  from  $2.18  to  $2.86  a 
week;  those  over  16  years  old  from  $4.28  to  $7.14  weekly.  Women 
over  16  years  old  earn  from  $2.15  to  $3.15,  while  those  under  this 
age  receive  from  $1.71  to  $2.15  a  week.  Sixty-one  hours  constitute  a 
: working  week.  The  cotton  mills  spin  thread  out  of  American  good 
middling.  They  weave  shirting  and  sheeting  muslin  exclusively. 
The  majority  of  the  machines  are  tended  by  one  operative. 

The  cotton-mill  owners  have  built  a  number  of  workingmen's  homes 
for  their  operatives,  which  they  rent  to  them  for  $23.80  to  $47.60  a 
year.  Other  necessary  requirements  cost  between  31  and  48  cents  a 
day. 


BRESLAU. 

OUTPUT  or  THE  MILLS,  AND  WORK  AND  WAGES  OF  THE  OPERATIVES. 

The  following  information  concerning  the  textile  mills  of  Silesia 
and  the  labor  conditions  prevailing  therein  is  furnished  by  Consul 
Herman  L.  Spahr,  of  Breslau : 

There  are  in  Silesia  about  a  dozen  large  establishments  engaged 
in  the  linen  industry,  and  quite  a  number  of  smaller  mills.  The 
average  wage  paid  in  these  is  as  follows,  per  week,  of  ten  hours  per 
day,  and  running  three  hundred  days  per  year :  Overseers,  24  marks 
($5.71) ;  male  operatives,  15  marks  ($3.57)  ;  female  operatives,  9  to 
10  marks  ($2.14  to  $2.38). 

The  machinery  used,  steam  engines,  turbines,  looms,  Jacquard 
machines,  and  preparing  machines,  are  mostly  of  German  make,  but 
some  are  of  English  origin.  The  largest  weaving  mill  in  the  district 
makes  almost  exclusively  figured  linen  goods,  such  as  tablecloths, 
napkins,  and  towels,  and  table  covers  in  white  and  colors,  plain  and 
embroidered. 

As  a  rule  one  operative  tends  one  machine,  seldom  two,  as  the 
articles  manufactured  require  close  attention.  In  spite  of  the  ap- 
parently small  pay,  the  majority  of  employees  are  able  to  keep  up  the 
household  and  save  something,  without  even  strict  self-denial.  Often 
several  or  all  members  of  a  family  are  employed  in  the  factory,  and 
thus  the  family  can  live  well.  Where  there  is  a  number  of  young 
children,  living  is  more  difficult,  especially  when  the  head  of  the 
family  for  any  reason  is  incapacitated  for  steady  work;  but  such 
yi  cases  are  exceptions,  and  are  generally  ameliorated  by  charity. 

WELFARE  WORK. 

^  In  addition  to  the  welfare  provisions  required  by  law,  the  follow- 
ing endeavors  of  the  owners  to  better  the  condition  of  their  oper- 

I  atives  may  be  mentioned.  There  are  savings  banks  paying  5  per  cent, 

j  with  yearly  deposits  of  about  50,000  marks  ($11,900)  ;  soup  and 
coffee  kitchens  charging  3J  pfennigs  (0.8  cents)  a  portion;  bath 
houses  where  a  bath  costs  3 J  pfennigs;  infirmaries  for  free  nursing 

[  and  treatment;  a  fund  for  convalescent  workmen,  and  another  for 
the  care  of  feeble  children.    Widows  and  aged  workmen  receive 

I  pensions  or  an  extra  allowance,  besides  the  age  and  invalid  pensions 
fixed  by  law.  One  mill  reports  that  in  1907  the  sum  of  29,000  marks 
($6,902)  was  set  aside  for  dwelling  improvements. 

• 


102 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


The  owner  of  a  large  weaving  mill  reports  that  the  workmen 
enter  his  service  usually  as  soon  as  they  leave  school,  and  frequently 
remain  through  life.  Many  of  them  have  been  in  the  mill  thirty  or 
forty  years.  Intelligent  and  industrious  employees  are  promoted 
from  time  to  time.  Outsiders  are  seldom  employed,  but  workmen 
once  employed  are  never  thrown  out  of  employment  against  their 
will,  when  hard  times  set  in.  Their  income,  if  not  large,  is  at  least, 
to  a  certain  degree,  secure. 

COTTON  MILLS. 

The  cotton  mills  in  Silesia  number  about  a  dozen  for  spinning  and 
a  score  for  weaving.  In  the  former  overseers  get  from  $5.36  to  $7.38, 
weekly;  male  operatives  average  55  cents  daily,  and  female  oper 
atives  48  cents.  The  spinners  work  ordinarily  ten  hours  a  day,  the 
weavers  ten  and  one-half  hours.  Children  under  14  years  must  not 
be  allowed  to  work  over  six  hours  a  day,  three  in  the  morning  and 
three  in  the  afternoon.  The  machinery  is  principally  of  English  and 
German  make.  The  finished  products  include  staple  articles  and 
bedding,  aprons,  inlets,  coarse  goods  (flannels,  etc.)  ,  also  dress  goods, 
zephyrs,  etc.  One  operative  attends  to  one  machine,  perhaps  two, 
and  in  exceptional  cases  three.  This  is  in  the  main  due  to  the  scarcity 
of  labor,  leading  often  to  the  employment  of  unskilled  workmen. 
Food  is  usually  furnished  at  low  prices.  For  instance  a  group  of 
five  mills  (one  spinning,  four  weaving)  belonging  to  one  firm,  main- 
tains canteens,  at  which  a  meal  is  sold  for  20  pfennigs  (4.8  cents)  and, 
at  the  coffee  hour,  one-half  liter  (1.3  pints)  of  coffee  with  two  rolls, 
for  5  pfennigs  (1.2  cents).  Bath  houses,  kindergartens,  and  hospi- 
tals are  also  established.  The  cotton  mills  employ  3,200  workmen, 
who  run  2,658  looms  in  the  four  weaving  mills  and  29,500  spindles 
in  the  spinning  mills.  [Samples  of  linen,  cotton,  and  union  goods 
made  in  the  foregoing  mills  are  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manu- 
factures.] 


CHEMNITZ. 

A  BUSY  INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CENTER. 

Consul  Thomas  H.  Norton,  writes  that  Chemnitz  is  especially  well 
provided  with  technical  schools  for  training  in  the  various  industries, 
and  especially  for  the  textile  trade.    He  continues : 

The  cotton  goods,  especially  stockings,  for  which  the  place  is 
mainly  celebrated,  rival  those  of  England  in  quality  and  cheapness. 
It  is  also  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  spinning  machinery.  There 
are  numerous  establishments  for  the  weaving  of  woolen  and  half 
woolen  cloths,  and  the  stocking  weaving  is  prosecuted  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  firms.  The  d^^e  works,  paint  works,  bleach  works,  and  chem- 
ical works  employ  a  great  number  of  workmen  and  carry  on  a  large 
trade. 

Hundreds  of  thousand  dozens  of  knit  gloves  are  purchased  here  an- 
nually by  buyers  from  every  country  in  the  world.  In  the  surround- 
ing district  the  ceaseless  noise  of  the  knitting  machine  is  heard  in 
every  home.    The  export  trade  is  very  extensive.    The  principal  ar- 


GERMANY  EEPOETS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


103 


icles  of  exports  declared  at  Chemnitz  for  the  United  States  during 
ihe  calendar  year  1906  were : 


Articles. 


Jnderwear. 
^  siaehinery— 
losiery: 

Cotton___ 

Silk  

Wool  


Value. 


$181,850 
277,190 

7,038,910 
230,495 
61,570 


Articles. 


Value. 


Gloves: 

Cotton  

Silk  

Wool  

other  articles- 
Total  


$1,852,620 
668,440 
272,190 
658,245 


11,247,510 


VARIETY  AND  VALUE  OF  THE  OUTPUT. 


The  great  prosperity  of  the  hosiery  trade  is  largely  due  to  the  good 
i  demand  manifested  by  the  United  States.  Lisle-thread  goods,  of 
which  a  dozen  of  ladies'  stockings  only  weigh  IJ  pounds,  are  becom- 
ing largely  sought.  As  regards  fancy  styles,  lace  openwork  goods 
still  lead  in  this  market,  and  there  is  also  a  large  demand  for  hand 
embroidery  on  hosiery.  Kid  gloves  are  largely  manufactured,  but 
this  particular  line  has  been  affected  by  the  popularity  of  silk  and  lace 
gloves.  Golf  and  Scotch  gloves  are  also  a  popular  feature  of  this 
market.  In  laces  the  demand  is  good  for  guipures,  nets,  and  galloons. 
Another  important  line  is  that  of  dress  fabrics,  such  as  jacquards, 
serges,  armures,  and  grenats.  The  trade  in  upholstery  goods,  plushes, 
etc.,  is  also  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

Germany  has  almost  obtained  a  monopoly  in  the  cotton  knit  goods 
trade  in  the  United  States,  the  exports  thither  amounting  to  $6,150,484 
in  1905,  $7,128,897  in  1906,  and  $8,671,848  in  1907.  The  principal 
supply  for  these  goods  was  Chemnitz.  The  number  of  spindles  in 
Saxony  has  increased  from  740,000  to  1,430,000  in  twelve  years.  The 
total  in  the  German  Empire  is  now  10,000,000. 


CREFELD. 

WAGES  GRADED  ACCORDING  TO  SKILL  OF  OPERATIVES. 

Consul  Joseph  E.  Haven  furnishes  the  following  information  from 
Crefeld: 

There  is  no  recognized  wage  scale  in  force  in  the  silk  and  velvet 
mills  in  this  district,  each  manufacturer  having  a  standard  of  his  own. 
The  wages  vary  in  the  different  departments,  according  to  the  skill 
of  the  several  workmen.  In  the  weaving  department  overseers  re- 
ceive from  $5.95  to  $7.14  a  week,  while  laborers  are  paid  from  $5.71  to 
$6.18.  In  a  few  factories  wages  are  paid  according  to  piecework. 
Overseers  in  the  winding  and  warping  departments  receive  from  $5.95 
to  $7.14  weekly;  the  laborers  from  $3.57  to  $4.96.  The  employees  in 
these  departments  are  generally  women.  In  the  dyeing  department 
overseers  are  paid  $9.52  to  $10.71,  skilled  labor  from  $7.14  to  $8.33, 
and  unskilled  labor  from  $4.76  to  $5.95.  The  overseers  in  the  finish- 
ing department  receive  $8.33  to  $9.52,  and  the  laborers  from  $4.76  to 
$6.18. 

The  machinery  used  in  the  several  factories  is  principally  of  Ger- 
man manufacture,  and  the  classes  of  textiles  manufactured  are  silks, 
half  silks,  velvets,  and  cotton  yarn.    The  operatives  in  the  larger 


104 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


towns  have  their  houses  in  which  several  families  reside,  while  thosei 
in  the  country  each  have  a  cottage  and  usually  a  small  plat  of  ground. 
[Samples  of  silks,  half  silk,  and  other  textiles  are  filed  for  inspection 
in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 


DUSSELDORF. 
SPECIAL.  LINES  OF  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY  GIRL  APPRENTICES. 

Consul  Peter  Lieber,  writing  from  Diisseldorf,  says  that  the  textile 
industry  of  Germany  is  divided  into  two  principal  branches,  spin- 
ning mills  and  weaving  mills,  comprising  two  special  lines,  thosei 
working  silk  and  those  working  cotton.    The  consul  adds: 

In  spinning  mills,  where  only  women  are  employed,  the  average 
daily  wage  is  from  71.4  cents  to  83.3  cents.  Immediately  after 
leaving  school,  usually  at  14  years,  the  young  girls  enter  the  factories. 
In  two  years  they  earn  from  35.7  cents  to  47.6  cents  a  day,  and  after 
four  or  five  years  their  wages  are  increased  to  the  maximum  of  83.3 
cents.  In  weaving  mills  the  salary  undergoes  many  fluctuations, 
reaching  as  high  as  $1.19  per  day.  There  are  also  many  factories 
where  workers  are  paid  according  to  what  they  produce,  and  often 
make  as  much  as  $1.30  a  day. 

The  weaving  mills  in  Diisseldorf  employ  mostly  German  machines; 
in  some  cases  French  machines  are  used.  In  several  other  places 
American  and  English  machines  are  in  use^  which  are  by  no  means 
inferior  to  the  German  machine  as  to  their  capacity  and  mechanical 
construction.  [Samples  of  silk  and  other  fabrics  made  in  the  Diissel- 
dorf region  are  filed  for  inspection  at  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 


EIBENSTOCK. 

CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  THE  COTTON  KNIT-GOODS  INDUSTRY. 

.  Consul  William  C.  Teichmann,  of  Eibenstock,  reports  that  the 
most  important  textile  industry  in  his  district  is  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  hosiery  and  underwear,  with  embroidered  trimmings  ranking 
second,  concerning  which  he  Avrites: 

The  knit-goods  industries  are  located  chiefly  at  Gornsdorf  and 
Thalheim.  At  Gornsdorf  twelve  factories,  all  producing  hosiery, 
had  been  doing  a  prosperous  business  until  the  American  finan- 
cial flurry  of  last"  fall  and  the  inauguration  of  a  protracted  strike 
changed  these  conditions  unfavorably.  This  strike  revealed  the 
wage  scale,  so  that  a  description  of  wage  conditions,  otherAvise  diffi- 
cult to  obtain,  can  be  given. 

The  five  firms  originally  aflected  by  the  strike  employed  472  men 
and  209  Avomen  AA^orkers,  AA^th  Aveekly  Avages  amounting  to  $3,351, 
averaging  $4.92  per  person  a  Aveek.  Of  the  men,  G5.3  per  cent  earned 
more  than  $4.76;  55.6  per  cent  more  than  $5.36,  and  42.9  per  cent 
more  than  $5.95.  Of  the  male  employees,  154  receiA^ed  $6.43  and 
over;  80  more  than  $7.14,  and  14  oA^er  $8.33.  The  highest  Avages 
paid  the  men  ranged  from  $8.64  to  $10.13. 

The  total  annual  wages  earned  by  some  families  through  their 
several  members  exceed  $1,500.    The  normal  number  of  hours  of 


I  GEKMANY  EEPOETS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS.  105 

I 

work  for  these  wages  was  fifty-eight  per  week,  averaging  a  little 
less  than  ten  hours  per  clay.  The  wage  scale  given  includes  all 
working  people,  even  boy  and  girl  apprentices  and  operatives.  On 
the  whole,  these  scales  are  high  for  Saxon  factory  labor  and  are  due  to 
[he  rapid  expansion  of  the  Saxon  textile  industries  in  recent  years,  the 
dearth  of  labor  for  the  supply  of  industrial  demands  in  general  in 
Saxony,  as  well  as  for  German  agricultural  requirements,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  employers  to  grant  the  steady  increase  in  wages  en- 
forced by  labor  in  the  industries  during  the  recent  economic  pros- 
perity. 

These  wage  conditions  are  also  applicable  to  the  hosiery  factories 
at  Thalheim,  where  45  establishments  manufacture  cotton  stockings 
principally.  It  is  claimed  by  manufacturers  there  that  the  average 
wage  paid  the  skilled  stocking  worker  of  this  section  amounts  to  $7.14 
per  week,  and  that  $9.52  is  nothing  unusual. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EMBROIDERED  TRIMMINGS. 

The  manufacture  of  embroidered  trimmings  ranks  second  in  im- 
portance in  this  district,  and  is  still  conducted  by  two  somewhat  dif- 
ferent means — the  schiffli  (or  schiffchen)  embroidery  machine,  with 
pantograph  attachment,  and  the  hand  machine.  Since  its  invention  in 
18G0  the  schiffli  machine  has  been  steadily  improved,  so  that  it  can 
(je  used  for  various  kinds  of  mull  muslin  and  tulle  (net)  lace  in  large 
pieces,  upon  which  1,800  stitches  a  minute  are  embroidered  by  auto- 
matic process.  A  stitcher  at  the  left  of  the  loom  guides  the  panto- 
graph over  the  sixfold  enlarged  pattern  outlining  the  stitches.  Spe- 
cial appliances  attached  to  the  machine  ])roduce  particular  orna- 
mental stitches,  sew  on  braids  and  cords,  and  even  enable  several 
chain-stitch  seams  to  be  made  Avith  one  thread.  All  kinds  of  tex- 
tures and  tulle  can  be  embroidered.  Gold  and  silver  threads  can  also 
be  used.  Robes,  stripes,  trimmings,  insertions,  blouses,  shawls, 
aprons,  parasols,  petticoats,  cloths,  etc.,  can  thus  be  embroidered; 
also  velvet,  table  covers,  portieres,  lambrequins,  upholstery  materials, 
and  even  rubber  belts  for  the  sporting-goods  trade. 

A  recent  invention  which  may  revolutionize  the  colored  embroidery 
process  is  an  attachpient  supplied  with  boxes^  each  containing  a  cer- 
tain color.  In  order  to  produce  diiferently  colored  stitchings  the 
threaded  needle  is  passed  through  the  required  color  and  the  thread 
thus  colored  at  Avill.  The  rollers  which  conduct  the  thread  are  sup- 
plied with  a  heating  appliance  to  produce  rapid  drying.  The  color 
change  operates  smoothly  and  can  be  made  in  a  few  minutes.  The 
colors  can  always  be  supplied  by  the  color  factory,  so  as  to  insure 
strict  uniformity  when  quick  renewal  of  supplies  is  needed.  Cotton, 
silk,  artificial  silk,  etc.,  can  all  be  worked  in  any  genuine  color. 
Guipure  lace  can  thus  be  made  without  difficulty.  [The  product  of 
this  innovation  is  shown  by  two  samples  inclosed,  which  are  on  file 
in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 

HAND  MACHINES  USED  IN  SMALL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

There  are  ten  establishments  manufacturing  embroideries  by  the 
schiffchen  machine.  However,  the  hand  machine  is  much  more  in 
use  here,  more  than  fifty  establishments  preferring  the  latter.  They 
are  smaller  concerns  and  are  not  conducted  on  the  same  extensive 


I 


106 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


scale  as  in  Planeii  and  also  at  8t.  (lall,  hi  SAyitzerland,  at  which  places  i 
(he  nianiifactuiH*  is  coiihiicd  to  that  by  the  schitfclien  machine. 

The  hand  embroidery  machine  is  a  "  satin-stitch  "  machine,  smaller: 
than  the  schiffchen  machine,  and  operated  by  a  hand  crank  between  i 
the  pantograph  and  the  stitching  apparatus.    The  hand  machines: 
used  in  Saxony  have  on  each  carriage  side  two  or  three  rows  of ' 
needles.    The  two-rowed  variety  is  know^n  as  the  Swiss  type,  and  the 
three-roAved  is  termed  the  Saxon  machine.    A  special  contrivance  ; 
has  been  invented,  whereby  the  needles  are  not  only  threaded,  but  the 
threads  are  knotted.    This  appliance  can  be  arranged  to  stitch  on  a 
pillow,  the  replacing  of  the  pillow  being  the  only  manual  work  re- 
quired.   One  girl  can  operate  four  or  five  such  machines  at  a  time.  I 
The  machine  can  thread  25,000  needles  daily. 

The  general  advantage  of  the  latest  automatic  schiffchen  machine,  i 
both  in  cost  and  operation,  is  that  it  produces  25  to  30  per  cent  more  i 
stitches  than  the  ordinary  schiffchen  machine.  Another  advantage 
is  that  larger  pieces  can  be  worked,  because  the  machine  has  a  length 
of  20^  feet,  wdiereas  the  ordinary  schiffchen  machine's  length  is  about  j 
one-third  shorter.  The  ordinary  schiffchen  machine  Avorks  from  six  | 
to  ten  times  as  fast  as  the  hand  machine. 

OPERATIVES  SCARCE  AND  WAGES  HIGH  COST  OF  LIVING.  I 

The  prosperous  conditions  of  the  the  past  few  yenTS  have  not  only  re- 
duced  the  supply  of  operatives  by  constant  absorption,  but  organiza- 
tion has  forced  up  wages  steadily.    A  few  years  ago  stitchers  for  the  i 
embroidery  industry  could  be  had  for  $4.50  per  week ;  now^  they  aver-  i 
age  $G  to  $7.10.    The  watchers,  or  "  aufpasser,"  usually  women,  who 
attend  the  machine  and  look  after  its  operation  while  the  stitcher 
guides  the  pantograph,  receive  from  $2.40  to  $2.85.    The  working 
hours  in  summer  are  from  G  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.    The  stitcher  is  not  com- 
pelled to  work  uninterruptedly,  as  he  is  paid  about  57  cents  per  1,000  i 
stitches.    Some  stitchers  have  their  own  machines  and  receive  better  j 
pay,  averaging  from  $9.50  to  $11.50  per  week.    One  stitcher  and  one 
w^atcher  suffice  for  the  operation  of  a  machine,  although  two  watchers  j 
insure  a  better  supervision  over  the  apparatus  and  are  frequently 
employed. 

Much  of  the  w^ork,  like  cutting  off  and  fastening  the  threads,  is  ; 
performed  by  the  home  workers,  principally  by  women  and  children,  i 
who  become  so  adept  in  the  handling  of  the  scissors  and  thread  as  to  i 
earn  from  15  to  20  pfennigs  (3J  to  5  cents)  per  hour. 

As  to  the  style  of  living,  the  better  times  of  recent  years  have  en-  i 
abled  the  w^orking  people  here  to  buy  more  meat  and  vegetables  than  ■ 
formerly.  To  many  meat  was  a  rare  luxury,  and  potatoes  and  bread  ; 
their  principal  nutrition.  Potatoes  are  still  the  main  food,  and  many  ; 
operatives  have  leased  small  potato  patches  in  the  neighborhood  of  ' 
Eibenstock  from  farmers,  who  turn  the  patch  over  to  them  when  the  , 
potatoes  are  ready  for  digging.  The  patches  are  just  large  enough  ^ 
to  furnish  a  yield  sufficient  for  the  family  of  the  renter.  j 

The  cost  of  living  has  increased  materially  here  within  the  last 
decade  for  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  but  not  so  much  for  the 
working  people,  whose  income  has  not  only  correspondingly  been  in- 
creased, but,  owing  to  the  great  demand  for  labor  and  the  frequent 
scarcity  in  industrial  as  well  as  agricultural  quarters,  achieved  gains 
exceeding  the  difference  in  increased  household  expenses. 


GERMANY  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


107 


At  KirchlxTg,  Wilkaii,  and  a  few  other  towns  in  tliis  disti'ict  s])in- 
ling  and  wea\'in<>"  mills  and  cloth  manufactories  exist,  but  the  mann- 
factnring'  and  wage  conditions  there  are  simihir  to  those  prevailing 
in  the  adjacent  Phmen  district,  which  have  been  fully  covered  in 
reports  from  that  section. 


FREIBURG. 


MACHINERY  AND  PRODUCT  OF  THE  MILLS  WAGES  AND  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

Consul  E.  Theophilus  Lief  eld  furnishes  the  following  information 
concerning  the  textile  industry  in  the  Freiburg  consular  district : 
^  All  the  ordinary  kinds  of  textiles  are  manufactured  here,  among 
the  principal  lines  being  women's  and  men's  woolen  garments  and  silk 
and  half-silk  goods.    One  firm  makes  artificial  silk  and  horsehair. 

Another  firm  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  ramie  yarn  and 
ramie  goods.  This  firm  is  constantly  adding  to  its  large  factory,  and 
expects  to  be  able  to  turn  out,  in  a  short  time,  1,300,000  pounds  of 
ramie  yarn  per  year.  The  fiber  used  by  this  firm  is  imported  from 
China,  where  it  is  grown  on  the  high  plateau  of  the  Yellow  River. 
:  Members  of  this  firm  inform  me  that  in  their  opinion  ramie  can  be 
successfully  cultivated  in  the  Philippines. 

During  the  year  1907  there  were  exported  from  the  consular  dis- 
trict of  Freiburg  to  the  United  States  textiles  to  the  value  of 
$481,885,  which  was  34  per  cent  of  all  exports  declared  at  this  con- 
sulate. There  were  in  all  788  invoices  Ol  textile  goods  certified  to, 
which  was  44^  per  cent  of  the  total  number  for  the  year. 

MACHINERY  AND  ITS  OPERATION. 

Much  of  the  machinery  in  use  is  of  German  manufacture,  but 
Swiss,  French,  and  British  machinery  is  also  in  use.  An  Alsatian 
factory  furnishes  the  manufacturers  here  with  considerable  spinning 
and  weaving  machinery.  One  of  the  largest  Freiburg  firms  informs 
me  that  its  principal  machines,  especially  sewing  machines,  are  of 
American  manufacture. 

As  the  speed  varies  with  the  different  machines,  accurate  figures  for 
the  respective  machines  can  not  be  given.  I  am  informed  by  one  firm 
that  the  speed  is  from  80  to  120  revolutions  per  minute ;  another  re- 
ports a  velocity  of  180  revolutions  per  minute  for  certain  spinning 
wheels  in  his  factory,  for  steam-power  machines  from  80  to  150, 
while  dynamos  and  sewing  machines  have  even  3,000  revolutions  per 
minute. 

In  a  great  many  cases  there  is  one  operative  for  every  two  or  three 
spinning  frames,  and  for  sewing  machines  one  woman  for  each,  while 
for  looms  one  women  operates  one  to  two  machines — in  all  factories  a 
great  many  of  the  operatives  being  women.  In  some  factories,  how- 
ever, one  operative  tends  four  weaving  machines. 

I HOURS  OF  LABOR  AND  WAGES. 
The  hours  of  labor  in  the  mills  average  about  ten  per  day.    At  one 
mill,  for  example,  the  working  hours  were  from  6  to  noon  and  from 
1  to  5  p.  m.,  with  fifteen  minutes  recess  in  the  forenoon.    An  Alsatian 
factory  reports  the  hours  of  labor  as  ten  and  one-half  in  summer, 


i 


108 


COTTOI^  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


with  fifteen  minutes  recess,  ten  and  three-quarters  in  winter,  with  I 
thirty  minutes  intermission.    The  winter  hours  are  from  6.15  a.  m. 
to  12  noon  and  from  1  to  6  p.  m.    Two  factories  here  in  Freiburg  :|  $: 
report  their  hours  of  labor  ten  and  one-half  per  day. 

Ordinary  laborers  in  the  mills  are  paid  from  48  to  71  cents  per  day, 
their  overseers  from  71  cents  to  $1.20,  while  skilled  laborers  are  paid  j 
as  high  as  95  cents,  and  their  overseers  $1.67. 

That  some  of  the  mills  are  run  on  a  cooperative  plan  is  evident 
from  a  recent  newspaper  report,  which  states  that  a  textile  factory  in 
this  district  at  the  close  of  the  year  divided  $7,140  among  its  em-  | 
ployees,  those  who  had  been  in  its  employ  more  than  five  years  re-  | 
ceiving  Christmas  presents  of  from  $2.40  to  $19.  I 

I  am  unable  to  learn  anything  definite  about  the  cost  and  manner  ! 
of  living  of  the  operatives.    One  of  the  firms  informs  me  that  their  i 
employees  usually  pay  more  attention  to  dress  and  board  than  to  the  j 
comfort  of  their  living  quarters.  Some  spend  all  their  earnings,  while 
others,  more  economical,  save  something. 

workingmen's  dwellings. 

In  several  cases  where  there  are  a  great  many  employees  suitable  • 
houses,  especially  intended  for  the  operatives,  have  been  erected,  so 
as  to  rent  reasonably,  and  they  are  generally  in  great  demand.  This 
is  the  case  at  Emmendingen,  and  it  is  also  especially  the  case  in  the 
city  of  Miilhausen,  Alsace,  which  belongs  to  the  Freiburg  consular 
district,  a  great  industrial  center  of  textile  manufactures,  with  a 
population  of  about  100,000.  Miilhausen  has  a  workingman's  section, 
where  the  Industrial  Society  of  Miilhausen  has  built  plain,  comfort- 
able houses,  and  sold  them  at  a  low  price,  really  at  cost,  to  the  labor- 
ers, charging  a  certain  amount  monthly,  which  payments,  being 
regularly  made,  would,  in  the  course  of  time,  pay  all  the  original 
costs  of  building,  together  with  a  suitable  amount  of  interest,  when 
the  houses  would  become  the  property  of  the  occupants.  In  the  year 
1901,  1,243  such  houses  were  owned  by  the  occupants,  and  the  recent 
reports  of  this  society  show  that  it  is  still  active  in  building  such 
suitable  dwellings,  and  either  renting  them  or  selling  them,  some-  I 
what  on  the  plan  of  the  building  and  loan  associations  of  the  United 
States. 

From  the  report  of  1903  I  learn  that  this  society  appropriated 
$26,656  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  new  dwelling  houses  for  work- 
ingmen.   The  recommendations  of  the  committee  as  to  the  new  build-  , 
ings  were  that  two  kinds  of  dwellings  be  built,  one  with  apartments  \ 
containing  two  rooms  and  a  kitchen,  the  other  with  three  rooms  and 
a  kitchen,  with  all  necessary  adjuncts  as  to  sanitation  and  comfort 
provided  for,  and  that  the  dwellings  of  two  rooms  and  the  kitchen  i 
should  pay  an  annual  rent  of  $34,  and  the  one  of  three  rooms  $46. 

COST  or  HOUSES  AND  METHOD  OF  PAYMENTS. 

Accordingly,  from  the  spring  of  1901  to  the  summer  of  1902  the  ! 

houses  containing  12  two-room  and  12  three-room  apartments  were  I 

built  at  a  cost,  land  included,  of  $1,064  each  for  the  two-room  dwell-  , 
ings,  and  $1,153  for  the  three-room  dwellings.   The  rents  were  fixed 

as  follows,  not  including  gas  and  water:  Two-room  apartments,  i 

ground  floor,  $2.86  per  month;  for  the  first  and  second  floors,  $3.09  j 


I GERMANY  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS.  109 
per  month;  three-room  apartments,  ground  floor,  $3.70  per  month; 
and  for  first  and  second  floors,  $4.17  per  month.  On  September  1, 
1902,  these  apartments  were  all  occupied,  housing  137  people,  in- 
3luding  83  children. 

From  the  purchase  contract  it  is  evident  that  the  purchaser  is  ex- 
pected to  pay  down  10  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  and  a  further 
10  per  cent  each  year  until  the  place  is  paid.  for.  This  would  mean  a 
rent  of  $5.71  monthly  for  a  house,  the  value  of  which  is  $685.44,  and 
$9.52  monthly  for  a  home  worth  $1,142  or  more.  If  for  any  reasons 
the  monthly  payments  are  not  made  and  it  seems  that  the  party  can 
not  or  will  not  pay,  then  the  society  can  order  the  occupant  to  leave 
I  the  premises,  for,  according  to  the  contract,  the  purchaser  is  con- 
sidered as  living  as  a  renter  until  the  place  is  paid  for.  In  such  a 
case  a  certain  amount  of  the  money  paid  is  returned,  for  the  monthly 
dues  were  considerably  higher  than  the  amount  that  would  have  been 
charged  as  rent. 

[A  number  of  samples  of  textiles,  ramie  products,  stalks,  crude 
bark,  prepared  fiber,  and  thread,  and  plans  of  workmen's  dwellings, 
transmitted  by  Consul  Liefeld,  are  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manu- 
factures.] 


GLAUCHAU. 

PRODITCTION  OF  NOVELTIES  TECHNIC  AL  TRAINING  OF  OPERATIVES. 

Consul  George  A.  Bucklin,  jr.,  advises  that  Glauchau  stands  pre- 
eminent in  the  production  of  certain  fabrics,  from  the  fact  that  its 
manufacturers  have  always  striven  to  produce  complicated  novelties, 
concerning  which  he  writes: 

These  can  be  produced  here  better  than  almost  anywhere  else,  be- 
cause the  old  staff  of  hand  weavers  are  people  of  great  technical 
knowledge,  and  all  of  the  help,  such  as  spinners,  dyers,  and  finishers, 
have  adapted  themselves  to  producing  novelties  and  to  overcome 
almost  any  difficulty  in  the  way  of  new  creations.  Furthermore, 
Glauchau  has  a  state  weaving  school,  with  some  very  practical  and 
experienced  teachers,  so  that  there  is  always  a  supply  of  technically 
educated  help.  In  fact,  men,  women,  and  children  are  imbued  with 
everything  that  is  connected  with  Aveaving  goods. 

The  welfare  of  the  city  is  dependent  upon  the  weaving  industry 
and  upon  those  industries  connected  with  it.  Out  of  a  population  of 
25,000  inhabitants  about  one-half  are  directly  interested  in  the  textile 
industry  and  about  one- fourth  more  are  indirectly  dependent  upon  it, 
in  such  work  as  spinning,  dyeing,  spooling,  making  of  winding 
boards,  cases,  and  dealing  in  paper  used  for  putting  up  the  goods. 

The  number  of  firms  in  Glauchau  at  present  engaged  in  the  textile 
business  is  about  10,  and  these  engage  (not  counting  the  help  for 
weaving  the  goods)  about  1,000  employees.  The  value  of  the  output 
of  the  largest  manufacturer  is  about  $1,500,000  annually.  The  out- 
put of  the  average  factory  is  perhaps  $500,000.  The  approximate 
value  of  the  total  output  of  textiles  in  the  city  of  Glauchau  amounts 
to  about  $6,000,000  annually,  and  the  foreign  countries  which  are  the 
largest  purchasers  are  the  United  States,  England,  and  Russia. 


110 


COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUKOPE. 
HANOVER. 


OUTPUT  OF  FACTORIES,  WAGES,  HOURS  OF  LABOR,  COST  OF  LIVING,  ETC 

In  submitting  the  following  information  concerning  the  textile 
industry  of  Hanover,  Consul  Eobert  J.  Thompson  reports  that  while 
it  is  not  particularly  extensive  it  is  diversified,  consisting  of  woo] 
washing  and  dressing,  cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  carpet  weaving 
etc. : 

There  is  one  wool  washing  and  dressing  factory  in  this  district 
employing  1,000  males  and  800  females,  ten  hours  constituting  a 
day's  work.  Ever}^  department  works  with  night  shifts.  The  wages 
are  paid  semimonthly,  with  deductions  for  invalid  and  old-age 
insurance.  This  company  furnishes  homes  to  the  workers  at  a  nomi 
nal  rent.  Figures  charged  for  rental  are  not  available,  but  are  esti 
mated  at  $60  per  year  on  an  average.  Supply  stores  and  a  reading 
room  are  provided  for  the  employees.  The  daily  wages  paid  in  this 
factory  are  as  follows  (1  mark=23.8  cents)  : 


Females. 

Description  of  work. 

Males. 

Marks. 

Carding  

Marks. 
2.25-3.25 

1.90 

Combing-  __  

Ironing   . 

1.90 

Cliemical  department..  — 
j  Inspectors  _  .  . 

3.50 
3.50-4.25 

Description  of  work. 


Yard  work  

First  sorting  

Washing  and  carbolizing  

Second  sorting  

Second  washing  


Marks. 
3.25 
3.20 
3.25 
3.20 
3.25 


Females 


Marks. 


2.00 
2.00-2.20 


Business  with  this  company  has  been  very  good  during  recent 
years,  the  stockholders  receiving  dividends  of  12  per  cent.  Wool  is 
bought  from  Australia,  Argentina,  South  Africa,  and  from  German 
growers.  The  wool  is  sorted,  washed,  carded,  combed,  and  smoothed 
It  is  then  sent  to  the  spinning  mills.  A  special  department  of  the 
factory  is  the  chemical  division,  where  residues  from  the  other  depart 
ments  are  made  into  wool  grease,  potash,  and  artificial  manure 
Much  of  this  wool  grease  is  exported  to  the  United  States. 

weavers'  wages  and  machinery. 

The  wages  of  foremen  working  in  the  principal  corduroy  and  cotton 
velvet  factory  vary  according  to  the  wages  of  the  male  and  female 
weavers  working  under  them,  and  amount  to  about  30  to  40  mark 
($7.14  to  $9.52)  per  week.  Other  foremen  and  the  master  weavers 
get  fixed  weekly  wages,  varying  from  24  to  80  marks  ($5.71  to  $19.04) 
according  to  the  ability  and  the  responsibility  of  the  men. 

The  male  and  female  workers  in  the  weave  room  and  in  the  shear 
ing  establishment  do  piecework  and  earn  15  to  28  marks  ($3.57  to 
$6.66)  weekly,  according  to  their  ability.  One  workman  generally  runs 
two  looms ;  the  more  skilled  run  three.  The  men  and  women  working 
in  other  branches  of  this  establishment  earn,  on  an  average,  about 
3.30  marks  (79  cents) ,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  they  do,  per  day 
of  10  hours'  work,  viz,  6  to  8,  8J  to  12,  1^  to  6— that  is  to  say,  12  hours 
with  2  hours  of  rest,  as  indicated. 

In  the  weave  room  drum  looms  are  in  use,  of  English  and  German 
manufacture.    The  machines  in  use  in  the  shearing  branch,  where 


GERMANY  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


Ill 


the  threads  of  the  weft  are  cut  to  form  the  glossy  surface  of  the  vel- 
vets, are  made  in  Hanover.  Part  of  the  weft  is  cut  by  hand.  Besides 
these,  a  good  number  of  other  machines  of  different  construction  and 
make  are  used.  This  company  makes  velvets  and  corduroys  only, 
samples  of  which  are  forwarded.  The  speed  of  the  looms  in  use  by 
the  company  depends  on  their  width  and  varies  between  120  and  170 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  speed  of  the  machines  in  the  other 
branches  varies  greatly  and  can  not  be  given  exactly.  The  main 
factory  at  this  place  and  a  branch  establishment  in  the  south  of  Ger- 
many belonging  to  this  company,  together  work  1,850  looms,  250 
cutting  machines,  and  550  finishing  and  dyeing  machines. 

COTTON  SPINNING  AND  WEAVING  AND  CARPET  WEAVING. 

The  leading  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  factory  employs  about 
800  workers,  for  the  most  part  women.  The  wages  for  spinners  are 
20  to  28  marks  ($4.76  to  $6.66)  per  week,  and  for  helpers  from  50  to 
76  per  cent  of  this.  The  self-acting  spinning  mill  and  water  spinning 
mill,  making  yarn  Nos.  4-36  and  8-32,  respectively,  have  as  tenders 
women  only.  The  wages  are  10  to  15  marks  ($2.38  to  $3.57)  per  week, 
and  the  same  wages  are  paid  in  the  department  for  washing,  winding, 
and  wrapping.  This  factory  also  has  24  houses  containing  93  homes, 
renting  at  $25  to  $40  per  year  for  small  apartments  of  three  or  four 
rooms.  These  houses  are  old,  but  there  is  always  a  large  waiting  list 
of  applicants,  owing  to  the  cheapness  and  accessibility  of  the  quarters. 

Herat  rugs,  machine  and  hand  woven,  stair  carpets,  and  strips  of 
carpet  are  manufactured  here  to  a  small  extent.  Self-acting  looms 
are  used  for  carpet  weaving,  and  the  knotting  is  done  by  hand. 
Machines  have  been  tried  for  knotting,  but  without  success.  Wages 
in  this  line  amount  to  3  to  3.5  marks  (71  to  83  cents)  per  day  for 
dyers ;  women  and  girl  workers,  tending  machines,  earn  6  to  13  marks 
($1.43  to  $3.09)  per  week. 

COST  OF  LIVING. 

The  total  number  of  operatives,  male  and  female,  is  about  1,900, 
part  of  whom  live  in  apartments  built  by  the  company.  The  working 
women  are  allowed  to  bring  their  children  to  a  nursery  built  by  the 
factory. 

The  operatives  can  get  meals  in  special  places  established  for  this 
purpose,  and  costing  28  pfennigs  (6^  cents),  each  meal  containing  a 
liter  (1.05  quarts)  of  meat  and  vegetables.  The  houses  furnished  its 
employees  by  this  company  consist  of  small  stone  buildings  with  two 
to  four  apartments  of  four  rooms  each — kitchen,  living  room,  and 
two  bedrooms.  The  rental  is  120  to  150  marks  ($28.50  to  $35.70)  per 
year.    Plans  of  the  house  are  forwarded  herewith. 

In  the  children's  nursery  and  hospital,  established  by  this  company, 
about  200  children  are  taken  care  of  each  workday.  This  establish- 
ment has  been  in  existence  since  1872,  and  is  for  the  benefit  of  mothers 
who  wish  to  work  in  the  factory,  but  have  no  one  to  take  care  of  their 
small  children.  Its  staff  is  composed  of  doctors,  nurses,  kindergarten 
teachers,  waitresses,  etc.  The  expense  is  borne  chiefly  by  the  com- 
pany, in  the  proportion  of  2  to  1.  The  cost  per  day  per  child 
amounted  in  1906  to  less  than  9  cents,  making  the  outlay  for  the 


112 


COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUKOPE. 


mother  about  3  cents  per  day  for  nursing,  feeding,  and  care  of  her 
child.    This  company  pays  7  per  cent  dividends  on  its  capital  stock. 

An  average  income  for  a  male  factory  worker  per  year  may  be 
fairly  estimated  at  1,200  marks  ($285.60).  To  this  should  be  added 
200  to  300  marks  ($47.60  to  $71.40)  ,  which  may  be  earned  by  the  wife 
or  children.  This  income  will  be  disposed  of  generally  in  the  follow- 
ing manner,  amounts  given  for  the  vear  being  for  a  family  of  five: 
Apartment  or  flat,  260  marks  ($61.88)  ;  clothing,  150  marks  ($35.70) ; 
food,  fuel,  and  light,  720  marks  ($171.36)  ;  recreation,  100  marks 
($23.80);  total  expenditures,  1,230  marks  ($292.74).  [Samples  of 
cotton  velvets  and  corduroys,  and  plans  of  the  houses  occupied  by 
factory  employees,  which  accompanied  Consul  Thompson's  report, 
are  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 


LEIPZIG. 

NUMBER  OF  WORKERS  AND  WAGES  PAID  IN  SAXONy's  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 

Consul  Southard  P.  Warner,  of  Leipzig,  states  that  the  impor- 
tance of  Saxony  as  a  textile  center  is  well  shown  by  interesting  figures 
which  have  been  published  by  the  imperial  insurance  office,  from 
which  he  compiles  the  following: 

During  the  twenty  years  from  1886  to  1905  the  number  of  insured 
workmen  in  the  German  textile  industry  increased  from  473,700  to 
732,500,  or  55  per  cent.  In  Saxony  the  number  of  textile  workers 
increased  from  116,000  to  225,300,  or  94  per  cent.  In  1886  Saxony 
employed  about  24.5  per  cent,  and  in  1905  about  30.7  per  cent  of  all 
persons  engaged  in  textile  manufacturing  in  Germany.  The  total 
wages  paid  in  Germany  to  textile  workers  increased  from  $62,118,000 
in  1886  to  $122,570,000  in  1905.  Those  in  Saxony  increased  from 
$14,756,000  in  1886  to  $36,652,000  in  1905. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  insured  workmen  and  the 
wages  paid  in  the  textile  industry  in  each  of  the  six  districts  of  the 
German  Empire  for  the  years  1886  and  1905 : 


Districts. 

Persons  insured. 

Per 
cent 
in- 
crease. 

Wages  paid. 

Per 
cent 
in- 
crease. 

1886. 

1905. 

1886. 

1905. 

Saxony      

Northern  Germany    ._. 

ne.ooo 

105,000 
92,300 
64,500 
57,500 
38,400 

225,300 
124,000 
138,600 
119,200 
67,200 
58,200 

94 
18 
50 
85 
17 
52 

$14,700,000 
13,600,000 
13,600,000 
8,300,000 
8,300,000 
3,600,000 

$36,700,000 
21,900,000 
27,100,000 
18,300,000 
11,200,000 
7,400,000 

150 
61 
99 

120 
35 

108 

Rhineland-Westphalia  

Southern  Germany   __   

Alsace-Lorraine  — 

Silesia..   

Total  Germany   . 

473,700 

732.500 

55 

62,100,000 

122,600,000 

97 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  statement.  Saxony  shows  the 
greatest  increase  in  the  number  of  insured  workmen  and  also  in  the 
wages  paid. 


AVERAGE  WAGES — BENEFIT  OF  TEXTILE  SCHOOLS. 

The  average  of  the  yearly  wages  paid  in  the  German  textile  in- 
dustry in  1886  was  $128.44.    In  1905  the  average  was  $163.66,  an 


GERMANY — REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


113 


increase  of  27  per  cent.  The  following  table  shows  the  average 
yearly  wages  paid  in  the  six  districts  for  the  years  1886  and  1905 : 


District. 

Average  yearly 
wages. 

Per 
cent 
in- 
crease. 

District. 

Average  yearly 
M^ages. 

Per 
cent 
in- 
crease. 

1886. 

1905. 

1886. 

1905. 

Saxony—-   

$127.33 
129.23 

147.08 
129.23 

$162.79 
176.60 

195.87 
153.75 

28 
37 

33 
19 

Alsace-Lorraine  

144.94 
92.82 

166.36 
126.62 

15 
36 

Northern  Germany. 
R  h  i  n  e  1'  a  n  d- West- 

phalia   

Southern  Grermany. 

Silesia    

Total  Germany- 

128.44 

163.66 

27 

The  textile  workmen  engaged  in  the  so-called  "  home  industry  "  are 
not  included  in  these  figures. 

In  1895,  the  figures  for  the  occupation  census  of  1905  not  yet  hav- 
ing been  published,  the  number  of  industrial  workers  in  Germany 
was  10,270,000,  Saxony's  share  being  1,150,000.  The  number  of  per- 
sons employed  in  the  textile  industry  of  the  Empire  was  993,000,  or 
9.7  per  cent  of  all  industrial  workers.  In  Saxony  the  textile  workers 
numbered  267,000,  or  23  per  cent  of  all  industrial  workers.  In  1895 
27  per  cent  of  all  the  German  textile  workers  were  employed  in 
Saxony.  From  these  figures  can  be  seen  what  an  important  part  the 
textile  training  schools  have  played  during  recent  years  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Saxony  as  a  textile  center.  In  1906  the  total  number 
of  factories  in  Saxony  was  23,000.  Of  these,  5,300,  or  nearly  25  per 
cent,  were  textile  establishments. 


MAGDEBURG. 

TEXTILE  INDUSTRY  SMALL  WAGES  OF  THE  OPERATIVES. 

Consul  Frank  S.  Hannah  reports  that  the  Magdeburg  consular  dis- 
ttrict  is  not  a  textile  manufacturing  region,  no  goods  of  this  descrip- 
Ition  being  manufactured  for  export  to  the  United  States,  although 
one  or  two  local  exporters  purchase  small  quantities  of  textile  goods 
from  the  big  manufacturers  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  ship  them 
to  the  States.    The  consul  continues: 

There  are,  however,  one  or  two  small  concerns  here  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  from  whom  the  following  information 
has  been  obtained:  The  wages  paid  overseers  are  36  to  50  marks 
($8.57  to  $11.90)  per  week.  The  male  mill-operatives  receive  30  to 
36  marks  ($7.14  to  $8.57)  and  the  female  12  to  18  marks  ($2.86  to 
i$4.28)  weekly.  These  wages  are  paid  and  the  work  done  entirely  by 
piecework.  The  average  hours  of  labor  are  fifty-nine  hours  per 
week,  ten  hours  constituting  a  day,  with  the  exception  of  Saturday. 

The  cotton-spinning  machines  are  made  in  England  and  in  Alsace. 
The  looms  and  the  machines  for  coloring  are  made  in  Germany  and 
the  bleaching  machinery  in  Switzerland. 

As  the  industry  here  is  so  small  and  the  number  of  operatives  so 
limited,  a  general  provision  for  cheaper  rent  and  the  furnishing  of 
supplies  at  reduced  prices,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  large  manu- 
facturing corporations,  does  not  enter  into  consideration.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  operatives  here  are  girls,  who  live  with  their  parents 
under  the  ordinary  conditions  prevailing  in  the  local  working  classes. 

r)4r).'->2— OS  8 


i 


114 


COTTON  FABEICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUEOPE. 


MUNICH. 

FACTS  OBTAINED  UNDER  DIFFICULTIES  WAGES  AND  COST  OF  LIVING. 

Consul-General  Thomas  W.  Peters,  writing  from  Munich,  Bavaria, 
says: 

Information  in  regard  to  textile  manufacturing  here  is  very  meager, 
some  firms  absolutely  refusing  to  give  out  anything.  There  are  very 
few  shipments,  and  even  these,  under  the  new  regulations,  are  not 
subject  to  an  expert  examination  before  certification  of  invoices,  as 
was  formerly  the  case.  Manufacturers  can  and  do  refuse  any  request 
made  regarding  manufacturing  conditions. 

A  number  of  large  mills  making  cotton  and  linen  goods  are  situated 
at  Augsburg.  The  wages  paid  to  the  overseers  and  weavers  range 
from  $1  to  $2.25  per  day,  while  the  unskilled  workmen  receive  75 
cents. 

The  speed  of  the  machines  varies  according  to  the  grade  of  goods 
manufactured,  but  ranges  from  120  to  450  movements  per  minute. 
One  man  takes  charge  of  15  machines  making  ordinary  plain  goods, 
while  in  some  high-grade  goods  2  to  4  machines  are  operated  by  1 
person.  The  cost  of  living  is  from  $190  to  $476  a  year,  according  to 
the  size  of  family.  There  are  small  houses  for  two  families  and  also 
tenement  houses,  the  rent  for  3  rooms  and  a  kitchen  amounting  to 
from  $30  to  $50  per  annum. 


PLAUEN. 

CONDITIONS   AMONG    THE   FACTORY   WORKERS   IN  SAXONY. 

Consul  Carl  Bailey  Hurst,  of  Plauen,  presents  the  following  review 
of  the  textile  industry  in  that  part  of  Germany,  and  describes  condi- 
tions among  the  factory  operatives: 

The  manufacture  of  machine-made  laces  by  means  of  embroidery 
comprises  the  chief  industry  of  Plauen,  to  the  exclusion  of  woven 
cloths,  which  are  produced  in  other  parts  of  this  district,  principally 
in  the  towns  of  Greiz  and  Eeichenbach.  It  is  to  these  places  that  one 
must  look  for  information  as  to  the  textile  industry  in  this  section  oi 
Saxony. 

The  wages  paid  to  those  employed  in  the  weaving  mills  vary  con- 
siderably. The  scale  of  even  two  years  ago  is  not  applicable  now.i 
The  tendency  is  toward  a  general  increase,  but  the  periods  of  activity 
and  depression,  the  disturbances  caused  by  small  demand,  strikes,  and 
higher  cost  of  raw  materials  must  be  frequently  taken  into  account  in 
giving  the  average  rate  of  wages. 

LESSENED  PROFITS  DUE  TO  MARKET  UNCERTAINTIES. 

The  manufacturers,  in  their  endeavors  to  make  a  fair  profit,  are  con- 
stantly harassed  by  the  uncertainties  of  the  market,  and  such  factors; 
tend  to  have  a  lowering  effect  on  wages ;  but  once  the  wages  are  raised! 
it  is  difficult  to  reduce  them  again,  no  matter  how  urgent  the  reason. 
There  are  complaints  from  both  sides.  The  manufacturers  are  work- 
ing at  less  profit  than  ever  before,  and  the  operatives  are  looking  to  a, 
further  increase  in  pay.  Some  older  houses,  after  having  taken  in  the 
sons  of  the  members  of  the  firm,  find  that  the  profits  have  become  so 


il 


I 


GERMANY  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS.  115 

liivided  that  there  is  no  longer  a  competence  for  most  of  them.  The 
jsituation  has  reached  such  a  condition  that  some  firms  in  this  locality- 
ire  dissolving  old  existing  partnerships,  as  the  business  is  not  suf- 
ficiently remunerative  for  all  partners.  It  is  the  intention,  however, 
pf  most  of  such  members  to  continue  on  their  individual  accounts. 
I  Notwithstanding  this  narrowing  in  the  margin  of  profits  in  the 
llocal  textile  industry,  the  demands  of  the  operatives  are  not  without 
foundation.  It  is  not  that  there  is  so  much  money  made  in  weaving 
liere,  but  rather  that  the  cost  of  living  has  increased  in  such  marked 
degree  that  the  wages  of  a  few  years  ago  do  not  suffice  to-day.  It  is 
the  clamor,  not  for  the  comforts  of  life,  but  for  the  bare  necessities, 
that  makes  mill  hands  seek  for  higher  pay. 

WAGES  OF  OPERATIVES. 

Women  and  girls  are  employed  very  largely  in  the  factories.  The 
average  wages  paid  to  overseers  range  from  24  to  40  marks  ($5.71  to 
$9.52)  a  week,  only  in  rare  instances  higher  than  this.  The  wages 
paid  to  operatives,  on  an  average,  are  nearly  IG  marks  ($3.81)  a  week. 
This  latter  rate  was  established  the  beginning  of  last  year,  when  the 
[iverage  weekly  payment  was  13.99  marks  ($3.33).  The  employers 
my  that  a  number  of  the  workmen  do  not  earn  the  pay  they  receive 
in  relation  to  the  work  done.  Operatives  are  striving  to  have  a  mini- 
mum of  18  marks  ($4.28)  a  week  established.  This  is  being  strongly 
opposed  by  most  manufacturers.  Before  the  latest  increase  in  wages 
ivas  granted,  the  operatives,  both  sexes,  divided  into  four  classes, 
earned  as  follows : 


Class  of  weavers. 

Wages  per  week. 

Jp  to  10  years  of  age   -   

?roiD  16  to  21  years   —  —   

Marks. 
10.38 
12.90 
16.08 
13.38 

Dollars. 
2.47 
3.08 
3.83 
3.18 

from  22  to  55  years     -       

)ver55  years  of  age— -      _                                                                -  -  - 

There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  in  different  places,  and  one  finds 
fvages  in  some  cases  as  high  as  18  marks  ($4.28)  per  week  being  paid, 
v^rhich  counterbalance  some  wages  as  low  as  7  marks  ($1.67)  a  week. 


STRINGENT  LAWS  REGULATING  HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

I  There  are  very  stringent  laws  for  the  observance  of  hours  of  labor 
for  operatives,  and  as  far  as  the  regulations  are  not  promulgated 
through  the  imperial  federal  council  they  may  be  fixed  through  the 
central  authorities  of  a  German  State  or  through  police  regulations 
ipplicable  to  this  district.  Before  the  issuance  of  such  regulations 
'opportunity  must  be  given  the  chairman  of  the  interested  trade  guild 
;o  express  an  opinion  on  the  subject.  By  decision  of  the  federal 
|30uncii,  regulations  can  be  laid  down  for  industries  in  which,  through 
Jxcessive  duration  of  daily  working  hours,  the  health  of  the  employees 
s  threatened ;  also,  the  length,  beginning,  and  closing  for  the  per- 
nissible  daily  period  of  work  and  the  intervals  of  rest  to  be  allowed. 

It  is  required  that  regulations  as  to  working  hours,  as  well  as  the 
^ests  for  adult  operatives,  shall  be  conspicuously  posted.  When  by 
reason  of  accident  the  regular  work  of  a  mill  is  interrupted  the  daily 
period  of  work  may  be  extended  later  by  the  imperial  chancellor. 


116 


COTTON  FABKICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


il 


If 


In  urgent  cases  the  local  authorities  can  permit  such  exceptions,  yet| 
in  no  instance  for  over  fourteen  days.  This  is  besides  the  permission, 
also  obtainable  through  the  local  authorities,  to  mill  owners  during 
seasons  when  there  is  an  unusual  accumulation  of  work  to  have  their,; 
operatives  work  overtime,  not,  however,  on  more  than  forty  days 
within  one  year. 

The  exact  hours  vary  considerably,  according  to  the  mills.  Some 
begin  in  summer  at  7  in  the  morning  and  close  at  7  at  night,  and  in 
winter  the  hours  extend  from  7.30  a.  m.  to  7.30  p.  m. ;  others,  for 
adult  workers,  from  6  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.  in  summer,  and  in  winter  fron^ 
7  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.  For  children  from  14  to  16  years,  from  6  a.  m.  tO{ 
6  p.  m.  in  summer,  and  from  7  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.  in  winter.  Rests  arej 
allowed  for  adult  workers  as  follows:  From  9  to  9.15  a.  m.,  from  noon 
to  1.30  p.  m.,  and  from  4  to  4.15  p.  m.  For  operatives  from  14  to  16! 
years  of  age,  from  9  to  9.30  a.  m.,  from  noon  to  1.30  p.  m.,  and  from 
4  to  4.30  p.  m.  In  some  smaller  places  the  rests  are  arranged  in  sum- 
mer from  8.30  to  9  a.  m.,  from  noon  to  1  p.  m.,  and  from  4  to  4.30 
p.  m. ;  in  winter  from  9  to  9.30  a.  m.,  from  noon  to  1  p.  m.,  and  from, 
4  to  4.30  p.  m. 

FEMALE  AND  YOUTHFUL  EMPLOYEES. 

According  to  the  law,  mills  must  permit  female  operatives  over 
16  years  of  age  who  have  a  household  to  care  for  to  leave,  at  theiii 
own  request,  a  half -hour  before  the  midday  interval,  provided  that 
there  is  not  allowed  at  least  an  hour  and  a  half  as  the  regular  dinner 
hour.  During  the  recesses  the  machines  will  be  stopped.  Young 
operatives  are  not  allowed  to  remain  in  the  working  rooms.  They 
have  to  retire  to  a  specially  assigned  room,  if  they  do  not  go  out 
doors.  The  bringing  of  food  and  drink  is  only  permitted  during  the; 
prescribed  periods  of  rest.  Female  ■  operatives  must  not  be  kept  ai 
work  after  5.30  p.  m.  on  Saturdays  or  on  the  day  before  holidays 
For  adult  female  operatives  the  afternoon  recess  on  such  days  is  to  be 
omitted. 

Female  operatives  may  not  be  employed  in  the  mills  from  8.3C 
p.  m.  to  5.30  a.  m.,  and  on  Saturdays  and  the  days  preceding  holidayj*" 
not  after  5.30  p.  m.  The  employment  of  female  operatives  over  1( 
years  of  age  must  not  exceed  a  total  of  eleven  hours  daily,  and  or| 
Saturdays  and  the  days  before  holidays  may  not  exceed  ten  hours.  ^ 
Children  under  13  years  of  age  must  not  be  employed  at  all  ir 
mills;  children  over  13  years  old  may  only  be  employed,  if  they  are 
not  obliged  longer  to  attend  public  school.  The  employment  of  chil 
dren  under  14  years  must  not  exceed  six  hours  daily.  Young  peopL 
between  14  and  16  years  of  age  must  not  be  kept  at  work  in  the  fac 
tories  more  than  ten  hours  a  day.  The  work  hours  of  young  oper- 
atives must  not  begin  before  5.30  a.  m.  and  must  not  continue  lateii 
than  8.30  p.  m.  Young  operatives  who  work  only  six  hours  a  daj 
must  have  a  rest  of  at  least  a  half  hour.  Other  youthful  operative? 
must  have  at  least  one  hour  at  noon  and  a  half -hour  each  in  tb 
morning  and  afternoon.  A  morning  and  afternoon  rest  need  not  h 
granted,  provided  that  the  young  operatives  are  not  at  work  oyei 
eight  hours  altogether,  and  the  duration  of  one  uninterrupted  perioc 
of  labor  does  not  exceed  four  hours.  On  Sundays  and  holidays 
young  operatives  must  not  be  employed  at  all  or  at  those  hours  whic^H/ 


T 

h 
ti 
I'll 
tig 

m 
i 


GERMANY  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


117 


heir  clergymen  have  set  apart  for  the  religious  instruction  of  such 
peratives. 

Operatives  under  17  years  of  age,  who  are  obliged  to  attend  com- 
lulsory  school  courses  at  certain  times  during  the  week,  will  receive 
he  necessary  liberty,  but  they  must  state  their  school  hours  in  ad- 
ance  at  the  office  of  the  mill. 

INSPECTION  OF  MILLS  MACHINERY  AND  PRODUCTS. 

It  is  probably  known  to  American  textile  manufacturers  that  the 
weaving  mills  in  this  district  are  practically  closed  to  expert  inspec- 
ion  except  to  the  Government.  While  showing  every  courtesy  to 
nquirers,  a  divulgence  of  information  which  may  or  may  not  be 
ecret  is  in  many  instances  withheld,  and  when  imparted  it  is  with 
he  understanding  that  any  data  supplied  will  be  in  no  way  made 
Dublic.  This  policy  is  followed  to  avoid  giving  any  possible  aid  to 
ompetitors. 

The  peculiar  finish  given  the  woolen  dress  goods  of  Reichenbach 
md  Greiz  has  enabled  them  to  be  sold  in  the  United  States,  in  spite 
)f  the  fact  that  the  original  value  on  the  German  market  is  often 
onsiderably  more  than  doubled  by  the  time  they  reach  the  whole- 
alers  in  New  York. 

The  machinery  employed  in  making  lady's  cloth  and  similar  tex- 
iles  often  varies,  because  manufacturers  have  had  certain  alterations 
>r  improvements  added  that  are  not  found  in  other  mills  of  the  same 
ocality.  All  looms  used  for  weaving  woolen  cloths  are  of  German 
origin,  and  in  most  instances  are  made  by  a  Chemnitz  firm  or  by  a 
firm  at  Furth,  near  Chemnitz,  and  cost  about  800  marks  ($190.40) 
each.  The  latter  firm  also  furnishes  a  machine  for  dressing  the  warp 
for  4,000  to  5,000  marks  ($952  to  $1,119).  French  machines  are  oc- 
casionally used  for  the  same  work,  and  cost  from  8,000  to  9,000  marks 
^$1,904  to  $2,142).  They  take  up  less  space  and  do  double  the  work 
of  the  usual  machine,  but  when  a  yarn  breaks  the  machine  must  be 
topped  until  the  damage  is  repaired.  The  consequent  loss  is  accord- 
ingly greater. 

i  New  weaving  looms  made  in  Plauen  are  to  be  put  on  the  market 
before  long  and  will  possess  important  improvements  that  bid  fair  to 
make  them  a  valuable  innovation.  One  of  the  simpler  looms  now  in 
use  making  Eeichenbach  cloth  is  generally  operated  by  one  man. 
A  single  loom  finishes,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  a 
piece  of  50  meters  (54.68  yards)  in  length,  from  90  to  130  centimeters 

1  (35.43  to  51.18  inches)  wide,  during  the  ten  and  one-half  working 
hours  of  a  day.  Four  times  50  meters  of  Jacquard  stuffs  may  be 
made  in  a  week. 

Forty-four  samples  of  henriettas,  voiles,  broadcloths,  cashmeres, 
serges,  and  fancy  stuffs  made  in  this  district  are  submitted  herewith 
1  [on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures],  giving  the  weight  per 
:  square  meter,  kind  of  yarn  used  for  weft  and  for  warp,  price  of  weft 
and  of  warp  per  kilo,  cost  of  weaving  per  100  meters,  and  other 
relevant  items. 

EFFORTS  OF  OPERATIVES  TO  BENEFIT  THEMSELVES. 

The  rise  all  over  Germany  in  the  cost  of  living  has  attracted  con- 
siderable attention  during  the  past  two  or  three  years.  The  prices 
of  meat  went  to  a  figure  never  reached  before,  and  although  there 


118  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


has  been  a  slight  decline  they  will  probably  never  descend  to  their, 
former  level.   Manufacturers  here  have,  of  their  own  initiative,  andi  '"^ 
also  by  reason  of  formal  demands  and  strikes  of  the  operatives,  ad-j  f 
vanced  the  wages  of  weavers  in  general,  but  the  increase  has  not  kept  '  !  ■ 
pace  with  the  higher  cost  of  living,  and  the  result  tells  heavily  on] 
the  mill  employees.    The  Government  has  bureaus  to  facilitate  the 
employment  of  those  out  of  work  and  there  are  private  societies  to- 
improve  the  condition  of  the  working  people. 

The  operatives  are  themselves  banding  more  together,  aiming  at  ai  ? 
solidarity,  which  will  be  at  the  same  time  of  political  influence,  to  the !  ^ 
end  that  measures  may  be  enacted  of  benefit  to  them  in  getting  higher  ! 
wages,  shortening  the  work  hours,  and  obtaining  other  advantages.! 
The  operators  hope  to  compel  mill  owners  to  accord  them  a  fixed 
minimum  rate  of  wages  in  excess  of  what  they  now  receive.  Through 
their  own  journals,  labor  unions,  and  labor  leaders  they  maintain  an 
unceasingly  active  campaign  that  will  enable  them  to  meet  the  higher 
cost  of  living. 

Herewith  I  submit  a  form  [on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures] 
that  is  filled  out  by  those  joining  the  Union  of  German  Textile 
Workers,  the  headquarters  of  which  is  in  Berlin.    On  this  form  the 
name  of  the  operative  has  to  be  given,  the  date  and  place  of  birth,  j 
residence,  firm  by  which  he  or  she  is  employed,  the  department  in  the 
mill  and  the  machine  number,  whether  married,  and  how  many 
children  under  14  years  of  age.    It  must  be  also  stated  on  the  form 
how  many  hours  the  operative  works  a  day  and  what  the  average 
earnings  are  per  week.    Membership  is  divided  into  four  classes, ! 
paying  20  pfennigs  ($0.047G),  30  pfennigs  ($0.0741),  40  pfennigs! 
($0.0952),  and  50  pfennigs  ($0,119),  respectively,  a  week.    The  ad-; 
mission  fee  is  30  pfennigs  ($0.0714).    The  first  class  is  only  forj 
male  and  female  workers  under  18  years  of  age.    The  other  three  [ 
classes  may  be  entered  by  all  operatives  without  regard  to  age  or  sex.  | 
The  relief  funds  are  eventually  distributed  according  to  the  class  and  ■ 
the  number  of  weekly  dues  paid.    While  seemingly  light,  these  fees 
are  in  many  instances  not  paid  without  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  op- 
eratives.   In  further  connection  with  the  cost  of  living,  the  obligatory  i 
contributions  to  the  State  old-age  and  accident  insurance,  as  w^ell  as  I 
to  the  sick  funds,  must  also  be  counted.  •  i 

ECONOMY  IN  LIVING  FOOD  OF  THE  WEAVERS. 

The  families  of  the  working  people  are  rarely  small,  and  it  is  not 
infrequent  to  find  a  man  and  his  wife  and  several  children  subsisting  \ 
on  $3.81  a  week.    From  this  amount  rent,  clothing,  food,  fuel,  and 
other  necessaries  have  to  be  paid.    In  many  instances,  however,  the ' 
wife  is  also  a  wage-earner  as  well  as  the  man,  and  the  children  go  to 
work  as  soon  as  possible.    Such  families  usually  live  in  a  kitchen  and 
one  other  room.    There  the  family  cooks,  eats,  and  sleeps.    The  rent 
for  such  an  apartment  is  rarely  less  than  10  marks  ($2.38)  a  month, ; 
the  general  price  being  about  15  marks  ($3.57).    Some  of  the  oper- 
atives are  better  placed  and  have  their  own  small  dwelling  in  the 
suburbs  with  garden  attached.    It  may  be  remarked  that  on  Sundays 
or  holidays,  when  enjoying  an  outing,  the  operatives  always  appear 
well  and  comfortably  dressed.    A  ragged  or  barefooted  person  is 
a  most  unusual  sight. 


GERMANY  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


119 


-  Food  is  of  necessity  quite  simple.  One  person  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  life  and  conditions  of  operatives  here  says  that  the 
principal  nourishment  of  the  weavers  consists  of  potatoes  and  salt, 
bread,  and  a  so-called  pepper  soup,  made  of  water,  bread,  a 
little  fat,  and  plenty  of  pepper.  Meat  is  seldom  eaten,  and  when 
indulged  in  at  all  is  usually  in  a  form  of  soup  meat  or  sausage.  Oper- 
atives generally  eat  five  times  a  day,  and  rye  bread  is  nearly  always 
taken.  The  first  breakfast  consists  of  coffee,  made  chiefly  of  roasted 
grain,  and  a  piece  of  bread  or  roll.  Sometimes  a  bowl  of  hot  water 
with  a  little  flour  stirred  in  is  taken  instead  of  coffee.  The  dinner  is 
at  midday.  The  morning,  afternoon,  and  evening  meals  are  much 
lighter,  and  in  them  beer  often  occupies  a  place. 

That  operatives  can  manage  to  live  on  this  small  income  is  evi- 
denced by  the  thousands  of  persons  working  from  one  year's  end  to 
another  in  the  textile  mills.  They  are  exerting  themselves  to  better 
their  condition  and  they  have  sympathizers  here  in  all  classes  of 
society,  not  excluding  many  mill  owners. 


STUTTGART. 

WOOLEN  YARN  MILLS  STATUS  OF  OPERATIVES. 

Consul  Edward  Higgins  makes  the  following  report  from  Stuttgart 
on  the  spinning  of  woolen  yarn  in  that  German  district : 

There  is  no  export  to  the  United  States  of  woolen  cloth  or  yarns 
from  this  district,  which  comprises  the  kingdom  of  Wurttemberg  and 
the  principality  of  Hohenzollern.  There  is  no  manufacturer  of 
woolen  goods  in  the  district  and  only  a  few  factories  making  woolen 
yarns.  The  facts  contained  in  this  report  come  from  the  largest  firm 
in  the  district,  employing  about  500  hands.  The  wages  paid  overseers 
vary  from  120  to  200  marks  ($28.56  to  $47.60)  per  month.  A  female 
operative  earns  from  2  to  2.8  marks  (4TJ  to  66J  cents)  per  day  and  a 
male  operative  from  3  to  4.3  marks  (71  cents  to  $1.02)  per  day. 
Eleven  hours  a  day  constitute  the  regular  hours  of  labor  for  six  days 
in  the  week.  Some  English  machinery  is  used,  but  the  great  bulk  is 
German.  The  machinery  is  run  at  a  speed  of  3,000  to  3,500  turns  per 
minute  for  knitting  yarns,  to  5,000  turns  per  minute  for  weaving 
yarns.  The  production  is  knitting  yams  and  fancy  colored  yarns 
for  weaving  purposes. 

In  the  preparatory  department  one  operative  generally  tends  two 
machines,  while  in  the  spinning  department  the  rule  is  one  machine 
lo  one  operative.  The  output  of  these  mills  is  largely  sold  to  woolen 
weavers  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland. 

COST  OF  LIVING  AND  HOMES  OF  THE  WORKERS. 

The  Wurttemberg  factories  are  located  in  small  country  villages, 
where  a  tenement  of  three  rooms  and  kitchen  can  be  had  for  180  to  200 
marks  a  year  ($43  to  $47).  The  operatives  live  largely  on  potatoes 
and  bread,  with  very  little  meat.  Some  factories  furnish  dinner  to 
their  operatives,  consisting  of  meat,  vegetables,  and  bread,  at  25  pfen- 
nigs (6  cents),  in  a  dining  hall  connected  with  the  factory. 

In  many  places  the  houses  occupied  by  the  overseers  and  mill  work- 
ers in  the  textile  industry  of  Wurttemberg  are  built  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  mill.  An  insurance  company  of  Wurttemberg  advances  50  per 


'1 

120  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE.  •  j 

cent  of  the  cost  of  building  and  as  security  this  insurance  company  \ 
receives  the  first  mortgage  on  the  houses.    This  company  charges  3  | 
per  cent  interest.   The  owner  of  the  mill  generally  takes  the  second  i 
mortgage  and  advances  the  other  50  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  building,  j 
He  also  charges  a  low  rate  of  interest.   The  workingman  occupying  | 
one  of  these  houses  must  pay  the  interest  on  the  first  and  second  mort- 
gages and  a  small  stipulated  sum  (about  $25)  every  year  on  the  mort- 
gages. It  takes  about  thirty  years  for  the  mill  operator  to  get  a  clear 
title  to  the  dwelling.  A  small  garden  is  connected  with  each  house. 


ZITTAU. 

OUTPUT  OF  VARIOUS  SPECIALTIES  FROM  AMERICAN  FIBER. 

Consul  Clarence  Slocum,  of  Zittau,  furnishes  the  following  report 
on  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  in  his  consular  district : 

The  ever  increasing  use  in  Germany,  as  in  all  other  countries,  of 
articles  made  of  cotton  has  contributed  greatly  to  the  general  pros- 
perity of  this  district,  in  which  are  located  some  of  the  oldest  cotton 
mills  in  the  Empire,  their  establishment  dating  from  1666.  While 
in  Zittau  proper  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  manufactures  can  be 
classed  under  this  heading,  four  large  adjacent  villages — Neugersdorf, 
Ebersbach,  Seifhennersdorf,  and  Grosschonau — with  a  total  popu- 
lation of  nearly  40,000  people,  are  famed  each  for  its  special  line  of 
cotton  manufacture  and  possess  some  of  the  largest  mills  in  the  Ger- 
man cotton  trade. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  bulk  of  the  goods  woven  in  this 
district  are  made  from  American  cotton,  the  yarns  used  ranging  from 
8s  (8  hanks  to  the  pound)  to  50s  count,  single  and  double,  while  16s 
to  26s  comprise  the  range  of  counts  of  the  bulk  of  the  material  used. 
As  there  are  comparatively  few  spinning  and  doubling  plants  in  this 
district,  the  yarns  are  principally  supplied  by  spinners  in  southern 
Saxony,  Bavaria  and  Ehenish  Prussia. 

AMERICAN  COTTON  CONSUMED. 

No  statistics  are  published  as  to  the  number  of  bales  of  cotton  used 
by  local  manufacturers,  but  from  figures  obtained  I  estimate  the  con- 
sumption of  raw  American  cotton  at  from  60,000  to  70,000  bales. 
This  quantity  of  material  is  used  to  supply,  approximately,  16,000 
looms,  which  furnish  employment  for  some  25,000  work  people  in 
addition  to  those  engaged  in  the  allied  trades  of  dyeing,  finishing, 
sizing,  etc.  The  goods  principally  manufactured  comprise  plain  and 
fancy  dress  goods,  vestings,  coatings,  trouserings,  sheetings,  Turkish 
towelling,  flannelette,  blankets,  rugs,  and  colored  fancy  table  covers. 

A  conservative  authority  informs  me  that  the  domestic  consump- 
tion of  the  local  cotton  productions  equals  fully  three- fourths  of  the 
district's  output,  while  the  balance  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the 
world,  in  part  through  connections  of  the  various  manufacturers  and 
also  through  the  active  agency  of  various  Hamburg  houses. 

In  so  far  as  this  district's  trade  relations  with  the  United  States 
are  concerned,  articles  made  of  cotton  rank  second  to  linens  in  point 
of  volume  of  business  accomplished,  the  total  shipments  for  the  fiscal 
year  1907  having  reached  the  sum  of  $225,019,  out  of  a  total  declared 
export  return  of  $1,625,474. 


AUSTRIA 


121 


COTTON  MILLS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 


COTTON    MANUFAf  TURIN G   THE   LEADING   INDUSTRY  IMPROVEMENTS  IN 

MILLS   AND  MACHINERY. 

During  1906  and  1907  Austria  enjoyed  an  unusual  measure  of  pros- 
perity, and  this  was  especially  felt  by  the  cotton  industry.  A  series 
of  five  years  of  exceptionally  good  crops  have  increased  the  absorptive 
power  of  the  people  to  a  degree  that  more  than  compensated  for  the 
decline  of  their  exports  to  one  of  their  principal  markets  caused  by 
the  customs  war  with  Servia.  The  quality  of  the  production  has  been 
raised  and  the  mills  now  produce  yarns  and  cloth  that  were  formerly 
exclusively  imported.  The  imports  of  cotton  manufactures  do  not 
as  yet  show  any  decrease  in  quantity,  but  the  home  mills  have  filled 
a  large  part  of  the  enlarged  home  demand  that  would  otherwise  have 
been  secured  by  foreign  mills,  and  in  addition  the  Bohemian  mills 
have  shipped  good  quantities  of  yarn  over  the  border  to  supply  the 
needs  of  Saxon  weavers. 

The  Austrian  spinners  have  not  felt  the  present  financial  disturb- 
ances of  the  world  as  much  as  have  the  weavers,  for  they  are  engaged 
longer  ahead,  in  many  instances  for  the  whole  of  1908,  while  the 
weavers  have  future  orders  for  only  a  few  months.  The  effects  of 
the  present  financial  situation  is  seen  in  the  sudden  holding  up  of  the 
mill-building  boom  that  has  been  in  full  swing  in  Austria  for  the 
last  two  years.  It  is  estimated  that  during  1906  there  were  400,000 
spindles  and  during  1907  some  600,000  spindles,' added  in  this  industry 
alone,  but  these  are  estimates,  and  there  are  no  definite  figures  avail- 
able. The  increase,  however,  has  been  such  as  to  make  cotton  manu- 
facturing the  leading  industry  of  Austria. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  MILLS. 

The  cotton  mills  in  Austria  divide  themselves  into  four  separate 
groups:  The  Bohemian  mills  along  the  northern  border,  the  lower 
Austrian  mills  lying  just  south  of  Vienna,  the  Yorarlberg  mills,  and 
the  mills  around  Trieste. 

The  first  section,  the  Bohemian  mills,  is  by  far  the  most  important, 
and  Bohemia  now  contains  about  60  per  cent  of  the  mills  of  the 
country.  These  mills  lie  along  the  northern  border  and  are  geo- 
graphically and  commercially  close  to  the  Saxon  and  Silesian  mills 
just  over  the  line.  Some  Saxon  mills  depend  for  their  yarn  on  the 
Bohemian  spinner  and  when,  as  in  1906,  the  German  weavers  have 

123 


124 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


an  unusually  flush  period  this  business  increases  largely.  The  center 
of  the  Bohemian  cotton  industry  is  Reichenberg,  which  is  therefore 
practically  the  center  of  the  industry  hi  Austria.  Within  a  short 
distance  from  this  place  are  many  cotton-manufacturing  towns,  in- 
cluding such  places  as  (Irottau,  Ketten,  Ivratzau,  Machendorf,  Tur- 
nau,  Halbstadt,  Eisenbrod,  Josepstadt,  Tannwald,  Morchenstern,  etc., 
all  of  which  are  steadily  growing  in  importance  as  cotton-mill  centers. 

RIVALRY  BETWEEN  CZECHS  AND  GERMANS. 

The  Bohemian  cotton  industry  Avas  started  and  is  now  owned  by 
German-speaking  people  of  German  descent.  The  Czech-speaking 
people,  however,  have  begun  to  start  an  industry  of  their  own,  and 
have  built  up  quite  a  group  of  mill  towns  which  center  around 
Nachod,  not  far  to  the  eastward  of  Reichenberg.  Of  some  6,318,000 
people  contained  in  Bohemia,  about  two-thirds  are  of  the  Czechish- 
Slavonic  race,  and  the  others  are  mainly  of  Teutonic  descent.  These 
latter  are  scattered  but  occupy  mainly  the  western  and  northern  por- 
tions, while  the  Czechs  are  strongest  in  the  central  and  eastern  por- 
tions. There  is  great  rivalry  between  the  two  races  and  this  rivalry 
at  present  is  having  its  effect  in  stimulating  each  to  get  ahead  of  the 
other  in  extent  of  business  and  has  led  to  many  new  mills.  The  Bo- 
hemian industry  in  general  has  the  advantage  of  proximity  to  coal 
fields,  of  a  better  class  of  help,  and  of  being  in  closer  touch  with  the 
great  manufacturing  nation  over  the  border. 

The  second  section  of  mills  are  grouped  just  south  of  Vienna  and 
especially  around.  Pottendorf.  This  section  of  lower  Austria  is  one  of 
the  oldest  cotton-manufacturing  localities  in  Austria,  and  before  the 
time  of  railroads  or  of  modern  mill  machinery  was  quite  a  hand-loom 
center,  and  cotton  from  Adana,  Smyrna,  Greece,  etc.,  was  brought 
in  at  Trieste  and  then  carted  a  long  distance  and  through  some  steep 
mountain  passes  over  to  the  lowlands  of  this  section.  These  mills 
are  nearest  to  the  export  commission  houses  which  are  mainly  cen- 
tered at  Vienna,  and  enjoy  favorable  banking  advantages,  but  their 
class  of  help  does  not  seem  to  be  quite  as  good  as  that  of  Bohemia, 
and  recently  with  the  increase  in  mills  and  the  drafts  made  on  them 
for  operatives  by  Hungarian  mills  there  has  been  a  scarcity  of  labor. 

The  third  group  of  mills  lie  in  the  Vorarlberg,  which  is  the  ex- 
treme western  section  of  Austria  that  juts  up  into  the  Swiss  high- 
lands. The  mills  in  this  section  are  largely  dependent  on  the  em- 
broidery trade  for  the  consumption  of  their  yarns  and  cloths,  and 
their  profits  rise  or  fall  with  the  prosperity  of  this  branch  of  indus- 
try. They  ship  some  goods  to  the  Swiss  embroidery  factories  lying 
around  St.  Gall,  but  otherwise  they  do  little  export  business. 

The  fourth  and  smallest  section  of  the  Austrian  cotton-manu- 
facturing industry  lies  in  Kustenland  and  Krain  around  Trieste. 
These  mills  use  a  larger  proportion  of  East  Indian  cotton  than  the 
other  mills.  They  are  more  favorably  situated  for  export,  but  the 
labor  difficulty  is  greater  in  regard  to  quality  as  well  as  quantity  of 
help,  the  mills  are  more  isolated,  and  they  are  farther  from  the 
machinery  makers,  from  the  bleacheries  and  dyehouses,  from  the 
financial  centers,  etc.,  so  that  the  industry  is  not  building  up  much  at 
this  point. 


AUSTRIA  COTTON  MILLS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 


125 


SPINDLES  AND  LOOMS. 

In  regard  to  the  actual  number  of  spindles  and  looms  in  Austria 
there  are  no  Government  or  authoritative  figures  pvailable.  The 
latest  figures  that  the  Austrian  Cotton  Spinners'  Association  was  able 
to  give  were  those  for  January  1,  1907.    These  figures  are  as  follows: 


Districts. 


Bohemia  

Vorarlberg  and  Tyrol 

Lower  Austria  

Moravia  and  Silesia.. 

Upper  Austria  

Krain  and  Istria  


Spindles. 


2,179,091 
414,604 
388.140 
207,429 
149,820 
130.566 


Districts. 

Spindles. 

Styria    

42,472 

Total  

3,512,122 
139,682 

Hungary  

Grand  total  

3,651,804 

These  figures  are  only  valuable  as  an  indication.   In  Hungary,  for 

instance,  the  total  of  spindles  in  operation  and  erection  is  now  (Feb- 
ruary, 1908)  somewhere  between  180,000  and  200,000,  and,  assuming 
that  the  total  increase  in  the  Kingdom  during  1907  reached  the  figures 
usually  estimated,  the  number  of  spindles  in  Austria  alone  is  now 
something  over  4,000,000. 

The  majority  of  the  mills  in  Austria  are  small,  but  the  tendency  is 
for  companies  owning  several  small  plants  to  gradually  build  up  the 
best-located  one  and  drop  the  others.  The  mills  are  increasing  in 
size  from  this  cause,  and  also  because  most  of  the  new  mills  are  of 
larger  size  than  heretofore  usual. 

AUSTRIAN  MILLS  WITH  OVER  FIFTY  THOUSAND  SPINDLES. 

The  cotton-manufacturing  companies  in  Austria  operating  over 
60,000  spindles  each  are  as  follows: 


Company. 


Spindles. 


Town, 


Section. 


Johann  Liebig  &  Co  

Johann  Erben  Priebseh  

Herm.  Pollak's  Sohne  

Priedrich  Kubinsky  

Jenny  &  Schindler  

Friedrich  Schmidt  

A.  G.  der  Baumwolle  Spinnerei  Trumau  und  Mari- 
enthal. 

Benedikt  SchroU's  Sohn  

J.  B.  Limburger,  jr  

K.  k.  priv.  Pottenderfer  Baumwoll-Spinnerei  und 
Zwirnerei. 

Getzner,  Mutter  &  Co  

Pranz  Priedl  

Herrburger  &  Rhomberg  

A.  G.  der  Kleinmunchner  Baumwoll-Spinnerei  und 
Mech.  Weberei. 

Johann  Munzberg  &  Co  

Johann  Gottfried  Haebler  

Gebruder  Grohmann  

Mako-Spinnerei  Cichorius  &  Co  

Friedrich  Mattausch  &  Son  

F,  M.  Hammerle  

S.  Kratzau  

Cosmanos  Vereingte  Textil-  und  Druckf  abriken  


131,856 
131,732 
100,352 
85,000 
84,432 
72,500 
70,708 

70,000 
67,000 
65,000 

64,152 
62,882 
58,272 
57,784 

56,454 
56,000 
56,000 
54,332 
54,136 
51,336 
51,300 
50,000 


Eisenbrod  

Morchenstern.-. 

Braunau  

Beraun  

Bregenz  

Iserthal  

Trumau  

Halbstadt  

Ketten  

Pottendorf  

 do  

Bohm-Kamnitz- 

Dornbirn  

Linz  

Theresienau  

Warnsdorf  

Bensen  

Kratzau  

Franzenthal  

Dornbirn  

Nachod  

Grottau  


Bohemia. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Vorarlberg. 
Bohemia. 
Lower  Austria. 

Bohemia. 
Do. 

Lower  Austria. 

Do. 

Bohemia. 
Vorarlberg 
Upper  Austria. 

Bohemia. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Voralberg. 
Bohemia. 

Do. 


The  largest  weaving  mill  is  the  Aktien-Gesellschaft  Osterreichische 
Textilwerke,  formerly  Isaac  Mautner  &  Sohn,  which  has  2,397  looms 
at  Grunwald,  near  Gablonz  in  Bohemia. 

The  largest  Austrian  cotton  manufacturing  company  is  seen  from 
the  above  list  to  be  that  of  Johann  Liebig  &  Co.    The  beginning  of 


126 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


this  company  was  in  1806,  when  Count  Christian  Clam-Gallas,  in 
company  with  a  certain  Francke,  of  Eerchenberg,  established  a  cot- 
ton-spinning mill,  which  began  work  on  October  7  of  that  year  under 
the  registered  firm  name  of  Clam-Gallas,  Francke  &  Co.  This  fac- 
tory was  sold  in  1808  to  Balabene  &  Co.,  and  by  them  in  1828  to 
Gebruder  Liebig.  This  firm,  since  changed  to  Johann  Liebig  &  Co., 
enlarged  the  factory  as  their  business  increased,  and,  besides  at 
Reichenberg,  now  have  mills  at  Eisenbrod,  Haratitz,  Swarow,  and 
Mezivod,  with  a  total  of  131.^856  spindles  and  some  2,400  looms,  and 
employ  1,500  workers. 

MACHINERY  ADVANCES  IN  PRICE. 

The  prices  paid  for  cotton-mill  machinery  by  Austrian  mill  men  are 
much  higher  now  than  they  were  two  years  ago.  This  is  due  to  the 
effect  on  the  textile-machinery  trade  of  the  great  mill-building  boom 
in  England.  This  has  so  absorbed  the  production  of  the  English 
textile-machinery  firms  that  not  only  have  they  raised  the  price  25 
per  cent  more,  but  they  will  not  quote  on  orders  except  for  very 
late  delivery,  in  some  cases  twelve  to  eighteen  months'  time.  This 
situation  has  been  of  great  benefit  to  the  Austrian  textile-machinery 
manufacturers,  and  they  have  taken  advantage  of  the  same  and  a 
good  many  new  firms  have  started  in  this  business.  They  have  not 
yet  the  perfection  of  the  English,  nor  do  they  manufacture  in  as  large 
quantities,  and  the  English  in  normal  times  can  still  control  the  Aus- 
trian market  on  this  line.  In  regard  to  present  prices  there  is  quite  a 
fluctuating  market,  and  no  prices  could  be  quoted  that  would  apply  to 
all. 

At  Prague  a  large  manufacturer,  who  has  recently  purchased  ma- 
chinery, gave  me  the  prices  he  paid  in  the  latter  part  of  1907.  The 
cards  cost  in  England  £100  each,  and,  adding  10  per  cent  for  packing 
and  then  the  transportation  and  duty  charges,  the  cost  landed  at 
Prague  was  about  3,000  kronen,  or,  say,  $609.  The  ring  spinning 
frames  cost  8s.  6d.  a  spindle  in  England,  and  the  price  landed  at 
Prague  came  to  6,000  kronen  per  450-spindle  machine,  which  is  about 
$1,218. 

At  Reichenberg  the  February,  1908,  prices  were  given  by  the  mill 
men  as  follows: 


Description. 


Bale  breaker  

Ten-meter  dust  trunk,  with  hopper  feeder  

Exhaust  opener,  with  one  beater  and  lap  apparatus 

Single  Crighton  opener  

Double  Crighton  opener  

Dapper  

Revolving  flat  card,  with  appurtenances  

Draw  frame  with  3  by  6  deliveries  

Draw  frame  with  3  by  7  deliveries'  

In  general  per  draw-framo  delivery  

Slubber  of  8i  spindles  

In  general  per  slubber  spindle  

Intermediate  of  128  spindles  

In  general  per  intermediate  spindle  

Fine  frame  of  168  spindles  

In  general  per  fine-frame  spindle  

Self-actor  mule  for  warp  per  spindle  

Self-actor  mule  for  filling  per  spindle  

Ring  spinning  frame  per  spindle  

Looms  for  gray  goods  110  centimeters  wide  


Kronen. 

DoUars. 

1,300.00 

264.00 

1,400.00 

284.00 

1,180.00 

240.00 

2,600.00 

528.00 

3,400.00 

690.00 

3,300.00 

670.00 

3,100.00 

630.00 

4,200.00 

853.00 

5,200.00 

1,056.00 

240.00 

49.00 

4,300.00 

873.00 

52.00) 

10.50 

5,000.00 

1,015.00 

40.00 

8.12 

5,200.00 

1,056.00 

32.00' 

6.50 

8.80 

1.19 

8.20 

1.67 

12.40 

2.52 

350.00 

71.00 

(AUSTRIA  COTTON  MILLS  AND  EQUIPMENT.  127 
The  great  bulk  of  the  Austrian  cotton  mills  are  owned  by  pri- 
■vate  parties,  and  "Aktien-Gesellschaft,"  meaning  stock  company, 
is  seen  before  the  names  of  few  mills.  One  reason  of  this  is  that 
taxes  are  cheaper  for  a  private  mill  than  for  a  stock  company,  and 
another  is  the  fact  that  private  companies  who  have  no  shares  to 
Jlist  on  the  exchanges  do  not  have  to  publish  their  statements  in  the 
papers,  as  do  stock  companies;  Owing  to  the  increase  in  mills  in 
lithe  last  two  years,  and  the  interest  that  is  taken  in  cotton  manufac- 
tituring  by  the  general  public,  there  are  now  an  increasing  number 
of  stock  companies  listed  and  some  private  mills  have  changed  to 
1  stock  companies. 

SPINDLES  SPEED   OF   MACHINERY  COAL. 

The  majority  of  the  spindles  in  Austria  are  mule.  There  are  no 
^statistics  on  this  point,  but  large  manufacturers  estimate  the  mule 
i  spindles  as  double  the  number  of  ring  spindles.  The  bulk  of  the 
spinning  machinery  is  of  English  make,  while  the  majority  of  the 
weaving  and  finishing  machinery  is  Austrian  and  German.  Machin- 
I  ery  from  all  the  large  English  concerns  is  seen  more  or  less.  One  of 
the  most  popular  Austrian  textile  machinery  firms  is  that  of  G. 
Josephys  Erben,  at  Bielitz,  but  there  are  other  textile  machinery 
firms  at  Reichenberg,  Jagersdorf,  and  other  Bohemian  and  Silesian 
centers,  as  well  as  some  at  Vienna.  The  number  of  Austrian  textile 
machinery  manufacturers  is  increasing,  and  they  are  making  more 
efforts  to  control  their  home  markets.  German  machinery  is  mainly 
imported  from  Chemnitz,  and  some  from  Mulhausen.  They  are 
beginning  to  get  quite  a  foothold  in  spinning  machinery,  which  is 
a  line  that  England  has  heretofore  monopolized. 

In  regard  to  speed  of  machinery,  there  is  nothing  to  be  said  of 
value.  The  mills  base  their  speeds  on  the  English  catalogues  and 
production  tables  and  run  as  near  the  speeds  given  as  the  quality 
of  their  help  and  material  will  permit.  For  instance,  on  a  good 
quality  of  Cabots  I  found  that  the  Austrian  weavers  run  their  looms 
at  the  ordinary  180  picks  to  the  minute,  but  some  claimed  to  run 
200  or  over,  and  others  using  lower-grade  materials  could  not  get 
over  160.  About  one-third  of  the  650,000  bales  of  cotton  imported 
into  Austria  comes  from  India,  and  where  this  is  mixed  wdth  Ameri- 
can, or  where  low-grade  American  cotton  is  employed,  the  speed  is 
necessarily  curtailed. 

The  Bohemian  mills  are  situated  in  proximity  to  coal  fields,  and 
they  have  cheap  fuel,  but  the  quality  is  low.  Ordinarily  the  Bohe- 
mian coal  fields  supply  the  home  demand,  but  in  1907  the  consump- 
tion overtook  the  production  and  coal  had  to  be  imported,  and  prices 
ran  somewhat  higher  than  usual. 

INCREASE  IN  STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS. 

There  has  been  a  great  increase  in  industrial,  especially  textile, 
strikes  and  lockouts  in  the  last  two  years.  This  may  be  explained 
partly  by  the  better  industrial  conditions  wdiich  make  the  need  for 
labor  more  apparent,  the  workmen  taking  advantage  of  this  situa- 
tion to  better  their  condition,  and  partly  by  the  increased  cost  of 
living.  Unions  are  increasing  in  number  and  activity  and  many 
strikes  now  involve  a  whole  branch  of  industry  instead  of  being,  en- 


128 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


tirely  localized  as  formerly.  These  strikes  have  caused  similar  or-j 
ganization  of  employers,  and  in  many  cases  such  movements  are  now^ 
answered  by  lockouts  at  their  inception.  In  general,  strikes  are  for 
higher  wages  and  shorter  hours,  but  also  a  good  many  are  for  other 
objects,  such  as  increased  compensation  for  overtime  and  Sunday 
work,  for  early  closing  on  Saturdays  and  before  holidays,  for  recogni- 
tion of  the  union  and  of  walking  delegates,  etc.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  the  workmen  have  won  as  regards  wages  and  hours.  The  de- 
mands for  the  recognition  of  the  union  also  do  not  meet  with  as  gen- 
eral a  refusal  as  formerly,  and  this  is  shown  by  the  frequent  interven- 
tion of  laborers'  organizations  in  wage  agreements.  In  some  cases 
part  of  the  wages  were  given  in  beer  tickets  instead  of  cash,  and  some 
mills  made  it  obligatory  for  the  operatives  to  take  board  and  rent  of 
their  employers.  Strikes  to  remedy  these  conditions  were  also  suc- 
cessful. 

The  longest  strike  in  textile  circles  was  in  the  latter  part  of  1906  at 
Eeichenberg,  and  lasted  over  eighteen  weeks.  It  resulted  in  the 
recognition  of  the  union ;  in  granting  "  Laborers'  Day,"  May  1,  as  a 
holiday ;  in  a  compensation  of  90  heller  per  loom  when  bad  material 
is  furnished ;  an  increase  of  wages  in  various  kinds  of  labor ;  tariff  to 
be  published  on  the  wall;  married  women  to  be  entitled  to  leave  at 
11.30;  lunch  to  be  brought  to  the  mill  by  special  hands;  compensation 
of  narrow  goods  on  wide  looms  to  be  according  to  a  special  tariff ;  no 
new  laborers  to  be  accepted  for  a  certain  period  after  the  strike,  etc. ; 
while  the  strikers  obliged  themselves  not  to  interfere  with  those  who 
remained  at  work  and  did  not  strike.  The  Government  intervened  in 
a  good  many  of  the  strikes  and  lockouts. 

In  the  smaller  mills  the  working  conditions  as  to  light,  cleanliness, 
etc.,  are  not  as  good  as  they  might  be,  but  in  the  majority  of  the  mills, 
especially  the  large  ones,  they  are  very  good. 


WAGES  AND  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 


EARNINGS  OF  OPERATIVES   IN   THE   COTTON   MILLS  PROVISIONS   OF  THE 

INSURANCE  AND  PENSION  FUNDS. 

In  regard  to  wages  paid  in  Austrian  mills  there  is  great  variation 
between  the  different  sections  and  between  the  town  and  the  country 
mills  in  the  same  section.  As  a  rule  it  seems  that  the  mills  nearest 
Vienna  have  to  pay  the  highest  wages,  followed  by  the  central 
Bohemian  mills,  while  mills  in  the  more  sparsely  settled  sections  of 
eastern  Bohemia  and  lower  Austria  get  their  help  cheapest.  Nachod, 
for  instance,  pays  much  smaller  wages  than  Tannwald  or  Reichen- 
berg,  but  living  is  cheaper  at  Naciiod.  From  wage  lists  obtained  at 
various  mills  it  would  seem  that  50  cents  per  day  might  be  taken  as  the 
average  cotton-mill  wage  throughout  Austria. 

On  account  of  heavy  taxes  most  of  the  Austrian  cotton  mills  are 
private  companies.  The  system  of  management  is  a  little  different 
from  the  ordinary  American  custom  of  a  superintendent,  boss  carder, 
boss  spinner,  and  boss  weaver.  The  superintendent  is  here  called 
the  technical  director  or  manager,  and  under  him  there  is  an  assistant 
manager.  There  are  no  heads  of  the  different  .rooms,  but  instead  a 
foreman  for  each  group  of  machines.  Thus,  in  the  "  Prag-Hollescho- 
witzer  Baumwollspinnereien  Leopold  Mahler,"  at  Prague,  a  yarn  mill 
which  operates  26,012  spindles  on  yarn,  900  waste  spindles,  and 
3,048  tAvister  spindles,  there  is  a  technical  director,  with  one  assistant 
for  day  and  one  for  night  work.  Under  the  assistant  there  are  the 
following  foremen  or  second  hands :  Blow  room,  1 ;  cards,  1 ;  fly 
frames,  3 ;  ring  spinning,  4 ;  mule  spinning,  4 ;  doublers,  1 ;  winders, 
1;  yarn-delivery  room,  1. 

WAGES  IN  BOHEMIAN  MILLS  AND  W^ORK  PERFORMED. 

As  a  fair  example  of  an  average  mill,  in  respect  to  management 
and  wages,  I  give  the  following  detailed  list  of  a  40,000-spindle,  900- 
loom  Bohemian  mill  near  Reichenberg: 

Picker  room — per  day,  men,  48.7  cents ;  women,  34.5  cents. 

Cards — 1  card  grinder  to  every  20  cards,  $4.06  a  week;  1  can  girl, 
34.5  cents  a  day;  1  lapman,  48.7  cents  to  every  12  yards;  1  cleaner, 
48.7  cents  a  day  for  every  24  cards. 

Draw  frames — 7  deliveries ;  paid  1.32  cents  a  hank  for  No.  .13  hank 
sliver. 

Slubbers — pay,  4.47  cents  a  hank  for  No.  .50  hank  roving,  and  5.48 
cents  a  hank  for  No.  .60  hank  roving;  the  operative  makes  $3.25  to 
$4.46  a  week. 

54552— OS  9 

129 


130 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Intermediates. — Pay,  5.08  cents  for  1.2  hank  roving  and  5.88  cents 
for  1.5  hank  roving;  make  $2.84  to  $3.85  a  week. 

Fine  frames.— Tenders,  4.87,  5.08,  5.28,  5.68,  5.88,  and  6.09  cents 
per  hank  for  Nos.  2,  2J,  3,  3^,  4,  and  4J  hank  roving.  The  fine  frame 
tenders  make  $2.48  to  $5.28  a  week;  they  usually  run  1  frame,  but 
some  run  2,  and  these  make  the  higher  wage.  On  the  40-fly  frames  at 
this  mill  there  are  employed  15  helpers  to  lay  up  roving,  help  doff,  etc., 
at  30  cents  a  day. 

Ring  spinning. — Each  girl  runs  1  frame  of  450  spindles  and  does 
her  own  doffing.  The  girls  of  every  4  frames  are  supposed  to  work 
together  when  doffing.  These  spinners  are  paid  per  hank  as  follows : 
Nos.  10  to  22s,  3.41  cents ;  Nos.  24  to  28s,  3.65  cents ;  Nos.  30  to  36s, 
3.84  cents;  No.  40s,  4  cents;  No.  44s,  4.12  cents;  No.  46s,  4.30  cents. 

Mule  spinning. — The  mules  at  this  mill  are  of  568  spindles  each, 
and  1  spinner,  1  apprentice  spinner,  and  1  creeler  run  2  mules  (1,136 
spindles).  They  are  paid  per  1,000  stretches,  of  66  inches  per  stretch, 
as  follows : 


Pineops. 

Spinner. 

Apprentice 
spinner. 

Creeler. 

Nos.  6  to  9   -   

Cents. 
13.86 
12.67 
12.18 
11.69 
11.94 
12.77 
12.93 
13.28 

Cents. 
12.67 
11.49 
10.98 
10.47 
10.72 
11.49 
11,65 
12.02 

Cents. 
8.42 
7.92 
7.65 
7.41 
7.13 
0.90 
6.90 
6.90 

Nos.  10  to  11  

Nos.  12  to  14             _    -   

Nos.  15  to  22    

Nos.  23  to  30                                             -                                   — - 

Nos.  31  to  42              __  _    __      __. 

Nos.  44  to  46     _.   

No.  50      

fl 


Itl 


EARNINGS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  OPERATIVES. 

If  one  figures  on  a  production,  as  they  do  here,  of  5.84  hanks  of  No. 
20s  per  ten  hours,  the  spinner's  wage  is  found  to  be  63  cents  a  day. 
Keelers  are  paid  by  the  kilo  (2.2  pounds) ;  warpers  run  1  machine 
each  and  are  paid  by  the  100  kilos  (220.46  pounds)  or  1,000  meters 
(1,090  pounds)  ;  spoolers  are  paid  by  the  day  and  winders  by  the 
kilo.  The  rate  of  pay  is  so  arranged  that  all  of  these  earn  from  41 
to  49  cents  a  day. 

The  foregoing  are  the  actual  wages  paid  at  one  Bohemian  mill 
and  except  for  the  mule  spinning  wages,  which  are  low,  may  be 
taken  as  a  good  average,  though,  of  course,  there  is  much  variation. 
Draw-frame  tenders,  fly-frame  tenders,  and  ring  spinners  are,  in 
nearly  all  Austrian  mills,  paid  by  the  hank.  On  the  mules,  however, 
it  is  more  customary  to  fix  a  set  price  for  the  spinner  per  day,  based 
on  the  required  production,  the  ordinary  requirement  being  35  hanks 
of  No.  20s  per  week,  and  then  to  pay  the  piecers  70  per  cent  of  the 
spinners'  wages,  and  the  creelers  50  per  cent.  The  usual  mules  are 
900  to  1,000  spindles  each,  and  for  2  mules,  1,800  to  2,000  spindles. 
Most  mills  require  1  spinner  at  $1.02,  2  piecers  at  71  cents,  and  2 
creelers  at  51  cents;  this  for  No.  20s. 

Weavers  are  paid  sometimes  by  length,  but  oftener  now  by  the 
1,000  picks.    At  the  foregoing  mill  the  following  are  the  weavers' 


AUSTRIA  WAGES  AND  LABOR  CONDITIONS.  131 


wages  per  100  meters  (109  yards)  of  the  main  varieties  of  cloth 
produced  (gray  cloth)  : 


Cloth. 

Width  in 
inches. 

Threads 
per  quar- 
ter inch. 

Yarn 
Nos. 

Wages. 

34.2 
49.6 
34.2 
34.2 
31.5 
37.4 

21/21 
26/13 
25/16 
24/20 
21/19 
13/13 

36/30 
24/11 
20/16 
36/50 
60/80 
20/22 

$0.75 
.87 
.65 
1.46 
.73 
.47 

Twills    

Satin   - 

Damask    

Batiste        

Plain  goods                .  __     

Weavers,  as  a  rule,  run  2  to  3  looms  and  make  61  to  81  cents  a 
iday.  The  majority  of  the  looms  are  of  English  or  Austrian  make 
and  of  the  overpick  style.  There  are,  however,  quite  a  number  of 
[mills  that  use  the  underpick  loom  only,  where  the  managers  prefer 
I  them  for  plain  goods  as  making  better  cloth.  There  are  some  Nor- 
throp looms,  but  they  are  not  widely  used.  Several  mills  use  the 
I  battery  made  at  Chemnitz  in  preference  to  the  Northrop.  In  this 
ibattery  pincops  can  be  used  by  being  slid  on  a  special  spindle  with 
iron  base,  and  as  most  of  the  weavers  buy  only  pincops  this  is  quite 
la  convenience.  A  large  number  of  looms  in  Bohemia  are  on  calico, 
I  using  36s  and  42s  yarn. 

WAGES  IN  POTTSDORF  AND  PRAGUE  MILLS  AND  WORK  PERFORMED. 

At  Pottsdorf,  near  Vienna,  in  a  large  mill  having  52,000  mule 
I  spindles  and  8,000  ring  spindles,  I  found  that  on  No.  44s  there  were 
required,  per  2  mules  of  2,536  spindles,  2  spinners  at  $1.02,  1  piecer 
at  61  cents,  and  1  boy  creeker  at  41  cents  per  day.  At  this  mill  the 
ring  frames  were  516  spindles  each  and  each  girl  ran  1  frame,  did 
her  own  doffing,  and  made  the  usual  41  cents  a  day.  The  manager 
of  this  mill  said  that  they  formerly  used  doffers,  but  that  there  had 
been  of  late  years  a  scarcity  of  help,  especially  of  girls,  so  that  he 
I  had  to  dispense  with  separate  doffers,  even  though  thereby  the  pro- 
duction was  slightly  decreased. 

At  this  mill  there  w^ere  105  cards,  and  1  lapman  supplied  laps  for 
the  lot.  There  was  a  line  of  steel  bars  suspended  from  the  posts 
back  of  each  row  of  cards,  and  a  lap  carrier  holding  6  laps  was  sus- 
pended from  rollers  resting  on  this.  The  picker  room  was  at  the 
end  of  the  card  room,  and  everything  conveniently  arranged.  One 
carder  at  49  cents  and  1  boy  at  41  cents  per  day  attended  to  each  12 
cards,  and  did  all  the  work  except  grinding.  In  front  of  each  line 
I  of  cards  was  suspended  a  6-inch  tin  pipe  line  with  a  hinged  cap  open- 
ing at  each  card.  These  pipe  lines  were  attached  to  a  suction  fan  at 
the  end  of  the  room  and  were  used  to  convey  away  all  the  waste.  On 
the  same  floor  with  the  cards  were  the  draw  frames,  slubbers,  and 
intermediates.  The  different  machines  were  not  banked  together,  but 
there  Avas  a  succession  of  groups  of  2  lines  of  drawing,  a  slubber,  and 
an  intermediate.  The  fine  frames  were  all  on  the  second  floor.  On 
jthe  fine  frames  1  woman  and  1  girl  ran  2  machines  of  180  spindles 
'each,  and  their  wages  averaged  $2.94  each  a  week. 

At  a  mill  near  Prague,  where  I  found  doffers  employed,  the 
spinners  ran  1  frame  of  450  spindles  each,  were  required  to  get 
38  hanks  on  No.  20s  a  week,  and  for  this  were  paid  $2.44  a  week  for 
day  work  and  $3.05  for  night  work.  For  22  frames  there  were  18 
helpers  or  doffers  at  32  cents  for  day  and  41  cents  for  night  work. 


1 


132  COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


WAGES  IN  TYPICAL  AUSTRIAN  MILLS  POOD  PRICES. 

I  have  made  up  the  following  table  as  showing  wages  and  cost  of 
living  for  six  typical  Austrian  cotton  mills.  The  table  is  prepared 
from  unpublished  statistics  given  me  by  the  president  of  the  Austrian 
Cotton  Spinners,  as  being  actual  figures  recently  compiled  by  a  mem- 
ber of  his  association,  and  from  statistics  obtained  personally: 


Description. 


Lower  Austria. 


No;  1.    No.  2 


Vorarlberg. 


No.  3.    No.  4, 


Bohemia. 


No.  5.  No. 


OPERATIV: 

Blow  room: 

Head  

Operative  

Waste  man  

Cards: 

Head  

Card  grinder  

Can  men  

Lap  carrier  

Oiler  

Draw-frame  tender  

Fly  frames: 

Head   

Operative  

Roving  hands  

Oiler  

Ring  spinning: 

Head  

Spinner  

Doffer  

Oiler  

Mule  spinning: 

Head  

Spinner  

Piecer-up  

Creeler  

Oiler  

Twisting: 

Operative  

Creel  hands  

Reeling: 

Head  

Reeler  

Packer  

Woman  bundlers  

Machine  shop: 

Head  

Machinist  

Woodworker  

Smith  

Engineer  or  turbine  minder  . . 

Fireman  

Transmission  tender  

Night  watchman  

Porter  


Average  wages. 


COST  OF  PROVISIONS. 

Bread  (medium  quality)  per  pound. 

Meat  '  do  


Flour  do  

Potatoes  do  

Sugar  do  

Coffee  do.--- 

Salt  do.... 

Cheese  one  portion. 

Milk  per  quart. 

Oil  do.... 

Beer  do  


$0.67 
.45 
.45 

.94 
.61 
.49 
.45 
.45 
.50 

.81 
.46 
.31 
.45 

.81 

.46 
.35 
.45 

.94 
1.09 
.74 
.47 
.45 


498 


Cents. 
1.9 
14.7 
3.0 
.7 
7.0 
26.3 
2.6 
4.1 
5.6 
9.3 
5.1 


$0. 


.40 
.32 


.49 

.35 
.35 


.94 
.38 
.29 


$1.02 
.61 


1.22 
.69 
.54 
.54 

-.42 
.43 

1.36 
.55 
.37 
.47 

1.52 
.43 


1.46 
.67 
.47 
.24 


.46 
.46 

.62 
.62 
.53 
.53 

1.62 
.81 
.59 
.61 
.63 
.53 
.57 
.35 


.53 

1.62 
.80 
.54 
.31 
.61 

.41 


1.12 
.47 
.64 
.46 

1.62 
.89 
.85 
.73 
.76 
.76 
.65 
.61 
.53 


$0.  75 
.47 
.45 

.81 
.56 
.46 
.45 
.45 
.45 

.81 
.45 
.37 
.47 

.81 
.39 
.35 
.45 

.81 

.81 
.43 
.30 

.45 

.42 
.39 

.81 
.36 
.56 
.37 

1.02 
.67 
.57 


$0.  71 
.41 
.45 

.71 
.65 
.41 
.41 
.41 
.41 

.71 
.46 
.37 
•45 

.81 
.49 


.37 


.69 
.65 
.55 
.57 
.55 


.61 
.53 


,416 


,538 


,46 


.487 


Cents. 
1.9 
14.0 
3.0 
.7 
6.3 
29.5 
2.4 


 1  

Cents.  !  Cents. 


3.2 
9.3 
6.0 


2.9 
14.0 
3.5 
.6 
7.0 
24.0 
2.2 
4.1 
4.2 
9.2 
7.4 


2.8 
15.0 
3.7 
.9 
7.2 
28.0 
2.1 
3.3 
4.2 
9.2 
7.4 


Cents. 
2.7 
14.3 
3.2 


32.0 
2.6 


5.1 
10.6 
7.0 


The  employees  live  very  plainly.  Bread,  potatoes,  coffee,  and  beer 
is  the  standard  diet.  Meat  is  high,  and  only  indulged  in  sparingly 
on  Sundays.  The  operatives  usually  have  5  snacks  a  day,  and  at 
Reichenberg  the  daily  cost  was  figured  as  follows :  Morning  meal,  at 
6 — coffee,  10  hellers  (2.03  cents),  bread,  G  hellers  (1.2  cents) ;  lunch, 


AUSTRIA  WAGES  AND  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 


133 


at  9 — bread  and  butter,  16  hellers  (3.25  cents)  ;  dinner,  at  noon — fried 
sausage  and  potatoes,  20  hellers  (4.1  cents),  beer,  9  hellers  (1.8  cents) ; 
afternoon  lunch,  at  4- — bread  and  butter,  16  hellers  (3.25  cents) ;  sup- 
per, at  7 — bread,  potatoes,  and  coffee  or  buttermilk,  25  hellers  (5.07 
cents)  ;  total,  102  hellers  (20.7  cents). 

Some  mills  stop  a  few  minutes  at  9  and  at  4  o'clock  for  the  lunches, 
but  at  others  the  luncheon  is  consumed  during  work.  Beer  is  the 
staple  drink  in  northern  Bohemia;  wine  is  not  used.  In  southern 
Austria  wine  is  more  used,  and  cheese  also  enters  into  the  diet  in 
preference  to  sausage. 

BENEFITS  FOR  THE  WORKMEN. 

In  Vienna  a  wool  mill  has  besides  the  regular  insurance  systems,  a 
pension  fund  for  widows  and  orphans,  whereby  the  widows  get  120 
kronen  a  year,  and  also  some  free  tuition  for  their  children.  There 
are  sick  benefit  institutions  at  a  good  many  mills.  Some  mills  make . 
up  the  difference  betweeen  the  sick  benefit  and  the  regular  wages  for 
one  year.  In  some  mills  the  management  pay  the  workman's  family 
full  time  while  he  is  away  on  his  six  weeks'  yearly  tour  of  military 
duty  among  the  reserves.  In  some  instances  when  provisions  are 
specially  high  the  mill  pays  a  special  extra  wage  per  month  of  10 
kronen  per  married  couple  and  5  kronen  to  single  men.  A  few  mills 
are  introducing  participation  in  profits.  Some  establishments  have 
arrangements  for  leave  of  absence  which  start  with  three  days  and 
rises  to  fourteen  days  a  year  for  full  pay.  The  length  of  free  absence 
with  full  pay  is  proportioned  to  the  number  of  years  employed. 

In  Bohemia  especially  the  mill  managers  have  made  efforts  to 
satisfy  their  help,  partly  for  business  reasons  and  partly  from  al- 
truistic motives,  but  these  efforts  have  not  in  all  cases  been  well  re- 
ceived, and  there  is  more  agitation  among  the  workers  there  than  in 
other  parts  of  the  Empire.  One  manager  complained  of  the  fact  that 
the  hands  would  not  use  baths  that  the  mill  had  gone  to  some  expense 
to  erect  in  up-to-date  style,  and  that  they,  tried  to  nullify  every 
scheme  he  got  up  for  their  benefit.  A  Government  inspector  reported 
a  case  where  an  altruistic  manufacturer  bought  a  lot  of  hygienic 
china  spittoons  that  he  hung  along  the  walls  of  the  mills  for  the  use 
of  the  hands  and  that  had  running-water  attachments,  etc.  These 
cost  him  33  kronen  each,  but  inside  of  a  month  in  one  way  or  another 
they  all  managed  to  get  broken,  and  the  manufacturer  concluded 
that  his  paternal  efforts  in  the  interests  of  the  workingman  were  of 
no  avail.  Some  manufacturers  consult  with  the  workmen  and  have 
more  success. 

Most  mills  now  have  lockers  for  their  help  to  keep  their  street 
clothes  in,  and  some  mills  furnish  working  slippers  for  the  women, 
so  that  they  are  protected  against  risk  of  sickness  from  wet  shoes. 
In  one  case  a  factory  sent  three  consumptive  operatives  to  a  sana- 
torium at  the  mill's  expense  and  others  to  the  country  for  a  period 
of  recuperation  from  sickness.  Any  reform  in  methods  of  work  is 
usually  resisted  by  the  operatives,  and  in  cases  where  mills  have  intro- 
duced such  conveniences  as  knot  tyers  they  had  to  be  diplomatically 
inaugurated  by  paying  a  girl  double  wages  to  try  the  experiment, 
and  then  proving  to  the  others  the  higher  wages  to  be  made  by  get- 
ting as  much  increased  production  as  the  inaugurator. 


134 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


SCARCITY  or  SKILLED  LABOR  RENTS  OLD  AGE  PENSIONS. 

In  making  up  their  report  for  the  year  1906  the  Government  in- 
spectors said  that  many  of  the  textile  districts  in  Bohemia  needed  30 
per  cent  more  hands  than  they  could  obtain.  This  condition  of  affairs 
also  existed  up  to  the  latter  part  of  1907,  when  the  labor  supply  caught 
up  with  the  demand,  on  account  of  a  slackening  up  in  business  due 
to  the  effects  of  the  foreign  money  crisis.  There  is  an  increasing 
demand  for  skilled  labor,  which  is  hard  to  supply,  and  the  increased 
cost  of  living  in  the  last  two  or  three  years  has  of  itself  forced  a  ma- 
terial increase  in  the  wages.  The  cost  of  living  has  increased  fully 
in  proportion  to  the  increased  wages,  so  that  the  worker  has  not  ben- 
efited materially.  This  has  resulted  in  the  increased  establishment  of 
canteens,  factory  kitchens,  and  soup  establishments.  Meat  is  very 
high,  and  there  have  been  efforts  to  substitute  sea  fishes.  The  emi- 
gration movement  is  one  factor  that  has  contributed  to  the  dearth  of 
labor,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  employment  agencies  also  act  as  emi- 
gration agencies.  Just  at  present  this  labor  scarcity  is  not  so  seri- 
ously felt,  but  it  will  again  become  a  problem  demanding  attention 
as  soon  as  business  picks  up. 

The  labor  problem  is  also  affected  by  the  scarcity  of  laborers'  dwell- 
ings, and  rents  are  high  in  proportion  to  wages.  Because  of  this  fact 
basements  are  used  as  habitations  in  many  towns.  The  mills  have 
built  a  good  many  tenement  houses  in  the  last  year,  especially  girls' 
and  bachelors'  homes.  Workmen's  buildings  are  also  being  put  up 
by  municipalities  and  by  building  companies  in  order  to  relieve  the 
house  famine.  Trieste  has  recently  put  up  some  municipal  buildings 
for  laborers.  One  building  contains  rooms  for  32  families,  of  which 
28  consist  of  one  room  and  the  kitchen,  and  four  only  of  one  large 
room  with  range,  and  every  flat  has  its  own  closet.  The  rent  for  the 
two  rooms  amounts  to  21.5  to  25.5  kronen  a  month,  and  for  the  single 
room  14.5  kronen  a  month.  The  taxes  amount  to  3  per  cent  of  the 
rent,  and  water  consumption  costs  2  kronen  a  month.  In  Prague  the 
Society  for  Laborers'  Dwellings  has  done  a  good  work  in  putting 
up  workmen's  houses,  and  in  providing  for  several  hundred  fami- 
lies. Each  habitation  consists  of  one  room,  one  kitchen,  and  one  hall. 
Some  have  gardens,  and  the  prices  range  from  161  to  223  kronen  a 
year  ($32  to  $45). 

The  housing  conditions  in  Austria  as  a  whole  can  not  be  said  to 
be  good,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  dwellings  and  the  high  rents,  crowd- 
ing to  many  families  into  a  house  and  too  man}^  persons  into  a  room, 
with  all  its  attendant  consequences,  but  the  habitation  conditions 
seem  to  be  improving  yearly  and  both  mills  and  municipalities  are 
working  in  this  direction. 

The  Government  has  no  old  age  or  invalid  pension  system,  as  in 
Germany,  though  efforts  are  being  made  to  get  the  system  established. 
Several  mills,  however,  have  instituted  such  systems  for  their  own 
factories,  and  also  have  a  graduated  pension  system  which  is  arranged 
so  that  full  wages  are  paid  after  forty  years'  service. 

SHORTER  HOURS  OF  LABOR  CONDITIONS  AT  VORARLBERG. 

In  most  cases  the  working  time  in  the  mills  has  sunk  below  the  legal 
limit  of  eleven  hours.  The  movement  for  shorter  hours  goes  on  in- 
cessantly, especially  in  lower  Austria  and  Vorarlberg,  as  well  as  in  the 
districts  of  Keichenberg  and  Koniggatz  in  Bohemia,  and  Brunn  in 


AUSTKIA  WAGES  AND  LABOR  CONDITIONS.  135 

Moravia,  where  such  movements  have  been  successful  and  mills  now 
run  ten  and  a  half  and  ten  hours  and  many  run  only  fifty-nine  hours 
or  less  per  week.  The  inspector  of  one  province  reports  that  the  in- 
troduction of  ten  hours  in  the  mills  in  his  province  did  not  result  in 
increased  production.  I  was  informed  by  a  manufacturer  who  tried 
it  at  his  mill  that  he  found  the  same  result  at  first,  but  as  soon  as  the 
novelty  wore  off  he  found  he  was  not  getting  any  more  production 
per  hour  than  before,  so  he  lost  in  proportion  to  the  reduction  in  time. 
Sunday  labor  in  Austria  is  prohibited.  To  work  at  night  or  overtime 
textile  factories  have  to  get  permission  of  the  Government. 

Most  mills  now  have  kindergartens  where  small  children  can  be 
left  while  their  parents  are  at  work.  The  charge  for  this  is  very 
small.  Mills  pay  off  weekly,  fortnightly,  or  occasionally  monthly. 
In  some  cases  mills  have  arrangements  with  certain  shops  and  pur- 
chases made  by  hands  are  deducted  by  mills,  but  most  mills  decline  to 
do  this.  Formerly  the  mills  stopped  one  and  one-half  hours  for 
lunch,  but  the  tendency  now  seems  to  be  to  stop  only  one  hour  and  get 
out  that  much  sooner  in  the  evening. 

Vorarlberg  is  quite  a  textile  center  for  embroidery  and.  for  cotton 
mills  making  yarn  and  cloth  to  be  used  in  the  embroidery  business. 
During  the  prosperous  times  in  1906  and  part  of  1907  many  em- 
broidery works  ran  far  into  the  night  and  many  of  them  worked 
double  shifts.  Laborers  had  to  be  brought  from  Lower  Austria,  the 
Tyrol,  and  Styria,  but  this  was  unsatisfactory,  as  they  were  hard  to 
accustom  to  the  different  conditions,  especially  to  the  higher  cost  of 
living.  Others  imported  Italians,  Croatians,  and  Bohemians.  Quite 
a  large  number  of  workmen's  houses  had  to  be  established.  One  mill 
built  houses  containing  five  perfectly  separated  divisions,  each  divi- 
sion containing  three  families,  so  there  were  15  families  to  a  house. 
Along  the  back  of  the  building  were  truck  farms  belonging  to  the 
building.  The  monthly  rent  for  two  rooms  and  kitchen,  garden,  etc., 
lighting  included,  was  12  kronen  or  $2.44.  One  large  manufacturer 
left  in  his  will  a  sum  for  an  endowment  fund  so  that  laborers  who 
married  after  four  years  should  get  a  marriage  portion. 


SALES  AGREEMENTS, 


TRADE  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  TRANSACTIONS  APPLICATION  TO  COTTON 

WASTE,  YARN,  AND  CLOTH, 

The  following  are  the  rules  adopted  by  the  Vienna  Cotton  Ex- 
change and  by  the  Austrian  Cotton  Manufacturers  Association  for 
the  sale  of  cotton  waste,  yarn,  and  cloth,  and  show  the  terms  and  con- 
ditions of  sale  generally  accepted  by  the  Austrian  trade : 

Cotton  waste  is  bought  and  sold  in  the  home  trade  and  on  the  Vienna  Ex- 
change either  according  to  spinning  kind  or  according  to  sample.  The  principal 
kinds  are  the  following: 


Spinnereifaden  (spinning  threads). 
Webereifiiden   (weaving  threads). 
Walzenputs  (cylinder  strips). 
Deckelwolle  (flat  strips). 
Kratsstaub  (clearer  laps). 
Durchschlag  (picker-room  waste). 


Spinnflng  (spinning  fly), 
Haspelkericht  (reel-room  sweepings). 
Spinnereikericht  (spinning  sweepings). 
Mischlinge  (mixed  waste). 
Anfgeloste    faden   (reworked  thread 
waste). 


The  price  is  understood  to  be  per  100  kilos  net.  The  bales  in  general  weigh 
one-half  to  one  and  one-half  metercentner  (110  to  330  pounds).  The  tare  is 
deducted  from  the  gross  weight  of  the  bales  as  the  actual  tare.  The  packing 
(sack)  is  paid  for  extra  by  the  buyer.  In  the  absence  of  other  explicit  con- 
ditions the  price  is  understood  as  cash  on  receipt  of  goods,  without  discount. 

Foreign  cotton  waste  is  sold  according  to  sample.  The  following  are  the 
principal  countries  and  kinds:  United  States,  linters;  Egypt,  afrit  and  mako 
scart;  France,  peigneuse  and  batteur;  England,  willow  fly,  stockings,  blowings, 
clearers,  and  combers.  The  terms  of  sale  for  the  direct  trade  with  the  United 
States  and  Egypt  are,  as  regards  weight,  tare,  price  basis,  etc.,  the  same  as  for 
cotton.  The  terms  of  delivery  from  France  are  payments  in  thirty  days  with 
2  per  cent  discount.  The  trade  with  England  is  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
Manchester  Exchange  for  twist,  also  4  per  cent  tare. 

The  foregoing  terms,  both  for  the  home  and  foreign  trade,  are  considered  as 
binding  unless  there  is  explicit  agreement  otherwise : 

RULES  AS  TO  COTTON  YARN. 

Paragraph  1. — Cotton  yarn  shall  be  dealt  in  so  long  as  there  is  no  legal 
restriction  in  regard  to  the  same,  either  by  the  kilo  or  by  the  English  pound, 
or  by  the  bundle  of  2.24  or  4.4S  kilos.  Single  bundles  in  the  gray — that  is, 
not  bleached  or  dyed — must  weigh  without  strings  or  covering  2.24  kilos,  and, 
similarly,  a  double  bundle  must  weigh  4.48  kilos.  In  a  single  bundle  there  must 
be  five  times  as  many  skeins  as  the  number  of  the  hank;  in  a  double  bundle 
ten  times  as  many.  Every  skein  must  consist  of  seven  leas.  Every  lea  should 
average  SO  threads,  and  every  thread  should  be  1.37  meters  long. 

Gray  single  cotton  yarns,  according  to  the  decisions  of  the  international 
yarn  numbering  congress  now  in  force,  must  not  have  more  than  Si  per  cent 
moisture.  The  yarns  are  weighed  on  scales  connected  with  a  drying  apparatus 
and  dried  at  a  heat  of  105  to  110°  centigrade  (221  to  230°  Fahrenheit)  up  to  the 
weight  constancy.  The  trade  weight  of  the  yarn  is  figured  from  the  dry  weight 
by  the  addition  of  the  admissible  moisture  contents  of  S^  per  cent.  This  per- 
centage corresponds,  regarding  the  normal  condition  of  the  yarn,  to  moisture 
contents  of  7|  per  cent. 

136 


AUSTKIA  SALES  AGREEMENTS. 


137 


Paragraph  2. — In  the  case  of  bundle  yarn,  where  there  is  not  the  correct 
number  of  lea  bands  or  length  of  skeins  as  above,  it  can,  within  four  weeks 
of  the  delivery  of  the  yarn,  be  left  at  the  disposal  of  the  seller,  if  no  other 
arrangement  was  made  at  the  time  of  sale. 

Paraf/raph  3. — Claim??  in  regard  to  weight  and  differences  in  yarn  numbers, 
also  for  too  large  moisture,  are  to  be  made  within  fourteen  days  of  the  transfer 
of  the  yarn.  Claims  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  bundle  yarn  must  be  made 
within  fourteen  days ;  in  regard  to  cops  within  six  weeks ;  after  this  period  no 
claim  can  lie.  Claims  in  regard  to  excessive  packing  weight  must  be  made 
within  six  weeks  after  receipt  of  the  yarn.  Regarding  yarn  to  be  sent  to 
another  place,  the  day  entered  on  the  bill  of  lading  or  waybill  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  commencing  day  from  which  the  claim  must  date. 

PROCEEDINGS    FOR  ARBITRATION. 

Paragraph  //. — In  cases  of  claims  arising,  where  buyer  and  seller  have  not 
previously  come  to  a  definite  agreement  as  to  a  certain  quantity,  the  buyer 
and  seller,  or  the  agent  of  the  seller,  are  together  to  take  from  each  bale  at 
least  one  single  or  double  intact  bundle,  but  from  every  cop  case  from  two 
different  places  in  the  case  seven  cops  must  be  taken,  and  together  with  the 
buying  samples  must  be  laid  before  the  court  of  arbitration.  This  collection 
of  samples  must  take  place  within  fourteen  days  of  the  date  of  claim.  Should 
the  seller  not  comply  with  the  necessary  regulations  respecting  this  collection 
of  samples  the  buyer  has  the  right  to  take  the  samples  with  the  assistance  of 
the  secretary  of  the  court  of  arbitration,  or  of  a  notary  of  the  same,  and  he  can 
do  this  within  the  following  three  days.  In  sampling  for  the  purpose  of  a 
moisture  test  the  following  will  be  observed :  The  samples  can  only  be  taken 
from  complete  and  intact  cases  which  have  not  previously  been  opened.  Every 
quality  and  yarn  number  must  be  represented.  In  lots  under  five  cases  two 
cases  are  to  be  sampled ;  in  larger  lots  one  case  in  every  five.  Single  cases 
can  not  be  accepted  for  condition  test.  The  cases  of  cop  yarn  selected  for  sam- 
pling are  to  be  weighed  and  the  net  weight  to  be  given  exactly  to  the  tenth  of 
a  kilo.  The  samples  of  approximately  one-half  kilo  are  to  be  taken  from  the 
inside  of  the  case  and  to  be  packed  free  of  light.  Of  the  selected  yarn  bales 
a  single  or  double  bundle  is  to  be  taken  out  of  the  middle  of  the  same  and  to 
be  packed  so  as  to  be  protected  as  much  as  possible  from  outside  influences. 

The  selected  samples,  packed  as  stated  and  with  the  seal  of  both  parties 
affixed,  are  to  be  sent  by  first  post  to  a  recognized  condition  testing  house  of 
the  Austrian  Cotton  Manufacturers'  Association  or  to  the  Vienna  Cotton  Ex- 
change. With  every  sample  must  be  given  the  marks  and  numbers  of  the  case, 
amount  of  invoice,  and  the  net  weight.  By  desire  of  the  buyer  or  seller  dupli- 
cate samples  can  be  taken  and  carefully  preserved.  Sampling  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  packing  allowance  must  be  in  a  manner  according  to  in- 
structions in  paragrai)hs  1  to  3.  From  two  places  in  every  case  some  cops  must 
be  taken,  at  least  100  cops  per  yarn  number  and  kinds — pin  cops  or  warp  cops. 
These  samples  are  to  be  well  packed  and  sent  to  the  Vienna  Silk  and  Wool  Dry- 
ing Institute  or  to  one  of  the  conditioning  houses  of  the  Vienna  Cotton  Ex- 
change. These  houses  fix  the  total  weight  of  the  cops,  including  packing,  as 
well  as  the  weight  of  the  empty  cases  and  packing  to  the  tenth  of  a  gram 
exactly.  All  costs  of  the  fixing  of  the  tare,  together  with  any  traveling  ex- 
penses, are  to  be  borne  by  the  party  who  loses. 

Paragraph  5.- — Should  bundle  yarn  not  reach  the  normal  weight  and  the  dif- 
ference not  amount  to  4  per  cent  the  buyer  must  take  the  yarn  against  com- 
pensation of  the  difference  in  weight.  Should  this  weight  difference,  however, 
exceed  4  per  cent,  the  buyer  can  either  demand  compensation  for  the  difference 
or  the  exact  weight  to  be  delivered  within  four  weeks,  or  he  can  reject  the 
yarn  against  payment  of  all  expenses  on  all  the  transactions.  The  annulling 
of  the  transaction  by  a  buyer  is,  however,  only  allowed  when  the  seller  does 
not  agree  to  deliver,  within  three  days  after  receipt  of  the  threat  to  annul,  the 
full  weight  of  the  yarn  demanded  to  replace. 

Paragraph  6. — The  "  number  "  of  single  gray  cotton  yarns  corresponds  to  the 
number  of  hanks  which  are  contained  in  an  English  pound  under  normal  rates 
of  moisture.  The  number  is  to  be  ascertained  as  follows:  In  the  case  of  bundle 
yarns  the  sample  skeins  are  to  be  weighed  together  in  sections  of  five  or  ten 
skeins;  in  the  case  of  cops  in  lots  of  twice  seven  cops,  and  an  entire  hank  is 
to  be  reeled  off  atid  weighed  at  the  same  time.  The  average  of  the  numbers  so 
obtained  is  regarded  as  the  number  of  the  yarns  in  the  respective  bales  or 


i 


138 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


cases  in  question.  In  case  the  numbers  are  rejected  all  existing  cases  or  bales 
have  to  undergo  numbering,  and  the  result  thus  reached  is  regarded  as  the 
average  of  the  numbers  for  the  whole  quantity  of  the  rejected  yarn  shipment 
which  had  to  undergo  sample  drawing.  Excluded  from  this  averaging,  how- 
ever, are  those  bales  or  cases  which  are  found  to  be  under  the  number  to  be 
shipped,  as  follows:  By  more  than  7  per  cent  for  numbers  up  to  14s,  inclusive; 
by  more  than  6  per  cent  for  14s  to  24s;  by  more  than  5  per  cent  for  numbers 
over  24s.  These  bales  are  to  be  set  aside  and  can  be  returned  by  the  consignee 
to  the  seller  on  compensation  of  all  his  charges.  On  finer  yarns  there  is  no 
compensation. 

The  limit  in  which  there  is  no  compensation  as  to  gray  numbers  is  fixed  at  3 
per  cent.  If  the  difference  in  numbers  is  averaging  more  than  3  per  cent  in 
yarns  up  to  24s,  inclusive,  then  the  difference  above  3  per  cent,  or  in  the  case 
of  numbers  over  24s,  the  difference  above  2  per  cent,  is  to  be  compensated 
according  to  the  additional  weight  of  yarn  that  has  to  be  consumed  in  manu- 
facturing. The  seller,  however,  does  not  have  to  pay  compensation  if  within 
the  time  of  shipment  stipulated  on  he  exchanges  without  charges  correctly  num- 
bered yarns  for  those  rejected,  provided  the  same  are  as  yet  unmanufactured 
into  cloth.  In  case  there  is  a  refusal  on  the  part  of  the  consignee  to  accept  the 
yarn,  either  on  account  of  too  coarse  or  too  fine  numbering,  the  seller  has  the 
right  to  ship,  within  a  fortnight  after  tlie  end  of  the  shipping  term  agreed  upon, 
or  within  a  fortnight  after  the  sample  drawing  is  made,  correctlj^  assorted  yarns 
in  substitution. 

Should  a  difference  of  numbers  be  stated  at  the  time  the  yarns  are  tested 
for  moisture,  which  the  consignee  or  the  seller  can  request,  in  that  case  a  refusal 
can  take  place  on  either  one  of  the  two  grounds ;  besides  the  samples  selected 
for  condition  test  a  single  or  double  bundle  is  to  be  selected  from  each  bale 
for  number  testing,  or  in  the  case  of  cops  twice  seven  cops  from  each  case 
and  the  number  is  to  be  at  once,  at  the  place,  fixed  by  the  consignee  and  the 
seller  or  their  representatives. 

In  case  there  are  objections  against  the  correctness  of  the  testing  instru- 
ments employed  (reel  and  yarn  scales),  or  against  the  manner  of  testing,  and 
an  agreement  is  not  possible,  the  decision  comes  to  the  court  of  arbitration. 
The  number  agreed  upon  or  decided  by  the  court  of  arbitration  is  to  be  an- 
nounced to  the  condition  testing  institute,  which  has  to  state  the  real  number 
with  due  regard  to  the  contents  of  moisture  ascertained  in  case  the  limit  of 
moisture  of  81  per  cent,  as  given  in  paragraph  2,  is  exceeded,  and  to  announce 
it  to  the  consignee  and  the  seller. 

IN  LIEU  OF  SPECIAL  AGREEMENTS. 

Paragraph  7. — Where  there  are  no  special  agreements  the  following  shall 
be  understood  in  regard  to  cop  shell  weight :  The  weight  of  the  paper  tubes 
of  warp  cops  shall  not  exceed  1.25  per  cent  and  of  pin  cops  2.25  per  cent  of 
the  full  cop  weight  (weight  of  yarn  and  tube).  Owing  to  the  fact  that  small 
deviations  are  unavoidable,  the  seller  can  claim  excess  paper  shell  tare  only 
when  the  shell  weight,  as  ascertained  according  to  the  last  section  of  para- 
graph 4,  is  more  than  1.4  per  cent  of  the  gross  weight  for  w\arp  cops  or  more 
than  2.5  per  cent  for  pin  cops,  respectively.  In  case  the  shells  weigh  more 
than  1.4  per  cent  or  2.5  per  cent,  respectively,  of  the  gross  weight  the  seller 
is  liable  to  compensate  the  consignee  for  the  difference  between  the  shell  weight 
of  1.25  per  cent  and  2.25  per  cent,  respectively,  and  the  one  actually  ascertained 
and  to  deduct  from  the  invoice  at  full  yarn  value.  For  throstle  crops  and  other 
warp  cops  on  bobbins  the  seller  has  to  compensate  the  consignee  the  full  bobbin 
rate  less  1.5  per  cent,  or  in  the  case  of  pin  cops  or  bobbins  the  full  shell  rate 
deducting  2.5  per  cent  of  the  yarn  weight  (weight  of  the  yarn  without  shells) 
at  full  yarn  price.  The  foregoing  regulations  do  not  apply  to  yarn  in  stocking 
yarn  twist  or  to  cases  in  which  the  consignee  stipulates  on  shipment  of  a  special 
cop  shape. 

Paragraph  8. — The  condition  tests  of  yarns  are  made  exclusively  by  the  con- 
ditioning houses,  which  are  publicly  established  by  the  Austrian  Cotton  Manu- 
facturers' Association  or  by  the  A^ienna  Goods  Exchange,  the  heads  of  which 
must  be  taken  on  oath  according  to  the  regulations  prescribed  in  these  organiza- 
tions. The  results  of  condition  tests  are  to  be  announced  to  the  consignees,  as 
well  as  to  the  seller  directly  by  the  conditioning  institute.  The  institute  which 
is  to  test  the  yarn  for  moisture  is  to  be  selected  before  the  samples  are  taken, 
and  by  the  consignee.  Within  three  days  after  receipt  of  the  decision  on  the 
conditioning  either  party  has  the  right  to  claim  a  second  condition  test,  provided 


AUSTKIA  SALES  AGREEMENTS. 


139 


duplicate  samples  were  drawn.  The  appointment  of  the  institute  for  the  second 
conditioning  test  is  for  the  seller.  In  accordance  with  the  results  of  the  samples 
drawn  as  per  paragraph  4,  as  well  as  for  the  statements  on  the  net  weight  in- 
I  Toiced  and  charged,  the  conditioning  institute  has  to  state  whether  there  is  for 
the  consignee  damage  by  too  great  an  amount  of  moisture  in  the  yarns,  and  to 
what  this  damage  amounts  to  in  percentage.  The  average  of  all  samples  sent 
in  to  be  tested  for  moisture  is  regarded  as  an  average  of  all  the  lots  rejected 
without  regard  to  whether  or  not  before  sampling  a  part  of  the  yarn  was  al- 
ready manufactured  into  cloth.  In  cases,  however,  where  the  series  is  no  more 
complete,  the  number  of  cases  stated  in  paragraph  4  must  have  been  sampled, 
or  else  the  condition  test  can  only  be  regarded  as  applying  to  the  quantity  ex- 
isting. In  case  of  a  double  conditioning  test  the  average  of  the  two  tests  is 
authoritative.  All  charges  of  the  tests,  including  all  eventual  traveling  ex- 
penses, must  be  paid  by  the  losing  party. 

COMPENSATION  FOR  REJECTED  YARN. 

Paragraph  9. — In  case  of  yarn  rejected  on  account  of  quality,  the  court  of  ar- 
bitration has  to  decide  whether  or  not  for  the  yarn  rejected  by  the  consignee 
another  corresponding  to  the  sample  or  to  the  sense  of  the  contract  is  to  be 
shipped  by  the  seller,  whether  the  consignee  has  to  take  the  yarn  on  compensa- 
tion of  the  loss  due  to  quality,  how  great  the  quality  damage  is,  and,  finally, 
whether  the  contract  is  to  be  regarded  as  \o\d.  For  quality  differences  of  cot- 
ton yarns  which  are  not  bought  by  sample,  but  by  label,  mark,  or  by  the  de- 
nominations of  certain  manufacturers  named  specifically  before  the  transaction, 
the  seller  is  liable  to  the  consignee  only  inasmuch  as  the  latter  can  show  that 
the  yarn  shipped  varies  materially  from  the  quality  of  the  labels,  marks,  or  de- 
nominations in  question  as  it  was  during  the  twelve  months  preceding  the 
contract. 

When  yarns  are  sold  by  samples  the  buying  sample  is  to  be  labeled  with  the 
date  and  sealed  or  stamped  by  the  seller,  and  is  to  be  given  to  the  buyer  in  a 
manner  which  precludes  the  confounding  or  exchanging  of  same.  In  all  cases 
where  the  court  of  arbitration  decides  upon  the  return  of  the  goods  the  seller 
has  to  compensate  all  charges  connected  tlierevv'ith  and  the  damage  done  to  the 
consignee  by  the  dissolution  of  the  contract  in  conformity  with  article  47  of 
the  general  conditions  for  the  trade  in  goods  on  the  Vienna  Exchange. 

Paragraij/i  10. — If  no  shipping  time  is  stipulated  upon  when  making  the  con- 
tract the  goods  are  regarded  as  to  be  shipped  immediately — that  is,  shipping  can 
be  requested  and  made  at  any  time.  If  gradual  shipping  in  a  limited  time  is 
agreed  upon  shipments  are  to  be  made  in  almost  equal  monthly  rates.  If,  how- 
ever, gradual  deliveries  was  agreed  upon  without  stating  the  final  time  of  ship- 
ping, acceptance  has  to  take  place  at  most  in  six  months  from  the  day  of  the 
contract  in  approximately  equal  monthly  rates.  If  a  contract  prescribes  con- 
secutive delivery,  this  consecutive  delivery  is  to  be  made  and  taken  in  approxi- 
mately the  same  rates  as  those  immediately  preceding.  The  consignee,  in  the 
absence  of  other  agreement,  has  to  hand  over  the  particulars  to  the  seller  at 
least  four  weeks  before  the  beginning  month  of  delivery,  otherwise  the  latter  is 
liable  for  no  tardiness  in  delivery.  If  the  consignee  neglects  to  send  in  the  i)ar- 
ticulars,  notwithstanding  that  he  has  been  requested  to  do  so  by  a  registered 
letter,  the  seller  has  the  right  to  deliver  the  articles  in  question  after  his  own 
wish,  within  the  limits  drawn  by  the  contract.  If  the  consignee  neglects  to  give 
his  orders  of  delivery  within  five  days  when  also  requested  by  registered  letter, 
the  seller  has  the  right  after  the  15th  of  the  month  of  delivery  to  send  over  to 
the  consignee  the  wares  in  question  or  to  store  them  in  a  public  warehouse  sit- 
uated near  his  place  of  manufacture  or  place  of  business  on  the  account  and  risk 
of  the  consignee. 

WHEN  DELIVERY  IS  DEEMED  TO  HAVE  BEEN  MADE* 

Paragraph  11. — The  seller  has  fulfilled  his  liabilities  for  delivery  if  he  hands 
over  the  yarn  to  the  consignee  at  the  latest  on  the  last  day  of  the  time  of  de- 
livery at  that  place  from  which  it  was  to  be  delivered,  or  if  he  has  handed  it 
over  to  the  transportation  company  to  ship.  If  the  seller  has  not  fulfilled  his 
liabilities  of  delivery,  or  the  consignee  has  not  fulfilled  his  liabilities  of  accept- 
ance, the  party  which  has  fulfilled  the  contract  may  claim  the  rights  stated  in 
paragraphs  47  to  55  of  the  general  stipulations  for  the  trade  of  goods  on  the 
Vienna  Exchange,  with  the  modification  that  the  silent  prolongation  stipulated 
in  paragraph  53  of  the  general  conditions  is  extended  to  four  weeks. 


140 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Paragraph  12. — The  entrance  of  superior  force  (force  majeur),  as  far  as  such 
renders  impossible  the  delivery  contracted,  releases  the  spinner  as  well  as  the 
jobber  from  the  obligation  of  shipping;  the  latter  party,  however,  only  when 
selling  yarns  by  certain  labels,  marks,  or  denominations  stipulated  upon  in  ad- 
vance. Strikes,  epidemics  at  the  place  of  manufacture,  officially  ascertained, 
and  breakage  of  transmission  appliances  or  machines  are,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances in  their  consequences  in  regard  to  liabilities  of  delivery,  to  be  re- 
garded as  equivalent  to  superior  force,  and  in  case  of  controversy  this  is  to  be 
decided  by  the  court  of  arbitration. 

Paragraph  13. — Invoices  are  to  be  paid,  first,  (a)  by  cash  with  3  per  cent  dis- 
count within  thirty  days  after  the  date  of  invoice;  (&)  with  bill  of  acceptance 
of  six  months,  or  acceptance  of  four  months  and  1  per  cent  discount  from  the 
invoice  date;  (c)  on  open  account,  five  months  from  date  of  invoice.  Second,  if 
one  monthly  invoice  is  produced  on  all  shipments  in  the  course  of  one  month  or 
cash  or  acceptance  monthly  is  agreed  on  all  invoices  produced  in  the  course  of 
a  month,  (a)  cash  payment  has  to  be  made  up  to.  the  20th  of  the  month  follow- 
ing the  month  of  delivery;  (h)  the  time  of  currency  of  the  monthly  acceptance 
begins  on  the  last  of  the  month  of  delivery ;  (c)  the  currency  of  the  four  months' 
open  account  begins  on  the  last  of  the  month  of  delivery,  so  if  the  consignee 
states  in  the  cash  business  the  time  of  payment,  the  amount  is  due  at  once  and 
the  cash  discount  ceases,  but  he  gets  5  per  cent  interest  for  the  time  elapsed, 
calculated  from  the  date  of  payment  up  to  the  close  of  the  four  months'  limit. 
Third,  if  the  consignee  was  permitted  to  choose  between  the  acceptance  or  cash 
payment,  or  if  acceptance  only  was  stipulated  upon,  the  acceptance  is  to  be 
sent  in  at  least  by  the  20th  of  the  month  following  the  delivery.  Should  the 
consignee  omit  or  neglect  this,  especially  if  requested  by  registered  letter,  the 
amount  of  invoice  without  cash  discount,  a  compensation  of  5  per  cent  calcu- 
lated from  the  date  of  payment  up  to  the  elapse  of  the  four  months'  term,  is 
payable  at  once  if  the  acceptance  is  immediately  sent  in.  Fourth,  by  cash  pay- 
ment is  understood  payment  in  cash,  transmission  by  indorsed  checks  on  banks, 
checks  on  postal  savings  banks,  or  other  checks.  Checks  and  indorsements  must, 
however,  be  due  at  the  time  stipulated  for  cash  payments. 

Paragraph  I'l. — If  there  is  no  other  agreement  for  cops  of  inland  origin, 
packed  in  cases  or  boxes,  1.4  hellers  per  English  pound  or  3  hellers  per  kilo  are 
to  be  charged  for  packing. 

Paragraph  15. — Charges  for  transmission  into  the  house,  store,  or  to  the  for- 
warding agent  of  the  consignee  are,  in  Vienna,  to  be  paid  by  the  seller.  On  ship- 
ments to  the  provinces,  charges  for  forwarding  and  transmission  to  the  respec- 
tive transportation  companies  are  paid  by  the  consignee. 

COTTON  WEAVING,  GRAY  GOODS. 

Paragraph  1. — All  goods  woven  from  raw  cotton  yarns  which  are  not  yet 
manufactured  are  dealt  in  per  meter,  if  there  is  no  other  agreement  either  by 
samples  (pieces,  strips,  or  cuttings)  or  by  designation  of  the  make-up,  the  yarn 
number,  width,  and  approximate  length  of  the  cloth.  If  there  is  no  agreement 
as  to  the  length  of  the  cuts  the  following  lengths  shall  be  understood:  For 
calico,  molinos,  percales,  etc.,  an  approximate  length  of  120  meters;  for  printed 
barchent,  approximately  90  meters,  and  for  domestics  and  inlets,  between  50 
and  60  meters  per  piece.  The  make-up  is  designated  by  the  number  of  warp 
and  weft  threads  which  are  included  in  a  quarter  of  an  inch  (old  Viennese 
measure)  or  to  a  centimeter  of  the  cloth.  The  width  of  the  cloth  is  expressed 
in  old  Viennese  inches  or  in  centimeters. 

Paragraph  2. — In  the  delivery  of  gray  goods,  when  there  is  no  other  agree- 
ment, only  cloths  manufactured  on  mechanical  looms  from  cotton  yarns  are  to 
be  understood. 

Paragraph  3. — Claims  for  delivery  not  in  accordance  with  samples  or  for 
differences  as  to  the  make-up,  width,  length,  yarn  numbers,  and  yarn  qualities 
must  be  made  by  the  consignee  at  least  within  a  fortnight  after  delivery  else 
the  liability  of  the  seller  ceases.  As  to  goods  sent  to  another  place,  the  date  of 
the  arrival  at  place  of  destination  stated  on  the  invoice  is  regarded  as  beginning 
the  time  of  claiming. 

Paragraph  //. — In  examining  into  a  claim,  if  the  seller  and  consignee  have 
not  agreed  upon  a  certain  quantity,  10  per  cent  of  the  rejected  goods,  but  not 
less  than  10  nor  more  than  100  pieces,  together  with  the  actual  samples,  in  case 
there  are  samples  (sample  pieces,  strips,  or  clippings)  are  to  be  presented  to 
the  court  of  arbitration.  Rejected  pieces  of  not  more  than  10  are  to  be  pre- 
sented in  full.   The  selection  of  the  pieces  to  be  judged  has  to  be  made  by  the 


AUSTRIA  SAl^ES  AGREEMENTS. 


141 


seller  in  common  with  the  consignee  or  by  their  representatives  within  fourteen 
days  from  the  day  of  claim.  In  case  the  seller  does  not  do  what  is  necessary 
m  this  connection  the  consignee  has  the  right  within  the  next  following  three 
days  to  have  sample  pieces  taken  from  the  rejected  bales  by  the  secretary 
of  the  court  of  arbitration  or  by  an  imperial  notary  public.  Should  the  parties 
not  agree  upon  the  selection  of  the  sample  pieces  the  same  are  likewise  to  be 
taken  by  the  secretary  of  the  court  of  arbitration  or  by  an  imperial  notary 
public  and  the  average  of  nil  the  samples  is  to  be  considered  the  average  of  all 
the  existing  quantities  of  the  rejected  goods. 

WHERE  NO  SPECIAL  AGREEMENT  EXISTS. 

Paragraph  5. — If  there  was  no  special  agreement  between  the  seller  and  the 
consignee  with  regard  to  the  permissible  difference  in  the  make-up,  all  kinds 
of  gray  goods  may  be  delivered  as  to  warp  as  well  as  to  weft,  with. full  num- 
ber of  threads  from  correctly  numbered  yarns,  but  with  due  regard  to  the  tech- 
nically unavoidable  limits  of  mistakes.  Differences  in  width  up  to  1.5  per 
cent  existing  in  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  entire  quantity  does  not  give 
the  consignee  the  right  to  reject  the  goods,  but  the  seller  is  compelled  to  com- 
pensate the  consignee  for  the  percentage  of  difference  in  width  as  ascertained 
np  to  this  limit.  If  there  is  a  difference  in  width  up  to  1.5  per  cent,  no  more 
than  5  i)er  cent  of  the  resulting  quantity  of  the  goods  are  to  be  taken  over  with- 
out right  of  compensation.  Goods  of  better  quality  than  contracted  for  can  not 
be  rejected,  insomuch  as  they  do  not  materially  vary  from  the  stipulations  pre- 
scribed in  the  contract,  but  the  consignee  has  no  right  to  claim  compensation 
for  better  goods  delivered. 

Differences  of  make-up,  yarn  numbers,  and  quality  are  to  be  decided  by  the 
court  of  arbitration  in  case  of  controversy.  If  the  latter  thinks  that  there  is 
a  difference  it  may  nevertheless  decide  that  the  consignee  has  to  accept  the 
goods  on  compensation  for  the  smaller  value  than  contracted  for.  If  the  de- 
cision reads  that  the  goods  be  not  taken  over,  the  consignee  may  nevertheless, 
on  his  own  desire,  accept  the  goods  on  compensation  of  the  smaller  value  of 
the  same  as  decided  by  the  court  of  arbitration,  or  he  may  return  the  same  to 
the  seller  on  settlement  of  all  the  charges  connected  therewith.  In  the  latter 
case  the  consignee  has  the  right,  first,  to  insist  on  fulfillment — that  is,  to  re- 
quest shipment  of  an  equivalent  qiiantity  of  goods  as  contracted  for  within  six 
weeks :  second,  to  desist  from  the  contract  by  canceling  the  shipment  in  ques- 
tion and  thereby  shorten  the  whole  contract ;  or,  third,  to  request  compensation 
for  the  damages  that  can  be  shown. 

If  the  consignee  wishes  to  desist  from  the  contract  or  to  request  compensa- 
tion for  loss  on  account  of  nonfulfillment,  he  must  announce  it  to  the  seller, 
leaving  a  proper  time,  which  should  be  decided  by  the  court  of  arbitration  in 
case  of  controversy,  for  delivery  of  goods  as  contracted  for.  If  this  time  for 
later  delivery  has  elapsed  without  result,  or  if  the  compensatory  delivery  does 
not  fall  within  the  contract,  then  the  contract  is  considered  void  and  the  seller 
becomes  liable  for  C()nii)ensation  of  damages.  In  case  of  cancellation  of  the 
contract  the  liability  for  damage  can  not,  if  the  contract  was  to  be  fulfilled  in 
several  sections  of  time,  be  i:ef erred  either  to  the  shipments  formerly  properly 
fulfilled  or  to  those  due  later  on. 

DIFFERENCES  IN   WEIGHT  AND  QUALITY  DELIVERY. 

Paragraph  6. — On  contracts  where  the  weight  per  ]nece  is  stipulated,  on  dif- 
ferences of  weight  up  to  3  per  cent  over  or  under  the  limits  stipulated,  can  not 
be  considered  grounds  for  rejection,  and  no  compensation  whatever  is  to  be 
paid  by  either  party. 

Paragraph  7. — On  contracts  which  are  not  made  by  sample,  but  on  the  regular 
brand  of  the  seller,  or  by  the  denomination  of  certain  manufacturers  specially 
named  before  contracting,  the  seller  is  liable  to  the  consignee  for  differences  of 
quality  only  inasmuch  as  the  latter  can  show  that  the  goods  delivered  mater- 
ially differ  from  the  quality  as  it  was  averaging  during  the  last  six  months 
preceding  the  contract. 

Paragraph  S. — On  contracts  by  samples  the  buying  sample  labeled  with  the 
date  and  sealed  or  stamped  by  the  seller  in  a  manner  precluding  confounding 
or  exchanging  is  to  be  given  to  the  consignee  to  file. 

Paragraph,  D. — In  case  there  is  no  certain  term  of  delivery  agreed  on  when 
contracting,  the  goods  are  considered  to  be  delivered  at  once — that  is,  fulfill- 
ment can  be  requested  and  made  at  once.    If  gradual  delivery  within  a  certain 


142 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


time  was  agreed  on,  delivery  lias  to  take  place  in  approximately  equal  monthly 
parts.  If  gradual  delivery  was  agreed  on  without  indicating  the  final  time^ 
delivery  has  to  take  place  at  most  within  six  months  from  the  date  of  contract 
in  approximately  equal  monthly  parts.  If  the  contract  is  for  consecutive  de- 
livery this  contract  is  to  be  fulfilled  and  accepted  in  approximately  equal 
periods  as  that  immediately  preceding  it. 

Paragraph  10. — In  case  there  is  no  other  agreement  the  seller  on  time  con- 
tracts has  fulfilled  his  contract  as  to  deliveries  if  he  has  delivered  the  goods 
not  later  than  the  last  day  of  the  term  of  delivery,  at  that  place  from  which 
they  were  to  be  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  consignee,  or  to  the  transporta- 
tion company  or  forwarding  agent.  If  the  seller  has  not  fulfilled  his  liabilities 
of  delivery  or  the  purchaser  has  not  fulfilled  his  liabilities  of  acceptance  the 
party  which  has  fulfilled  the  contract  is  protected  by  the  rights  given  in  para- 
graph 47  of  the  general  goods  trade  rules  of  the  Vienna  Exchange. 

If  a  contractor  desires  to  cancel  the  quantity  not  delivered  or  accepted,  re- 
spectively, or  to  claim  damages,  he  has  to  inform  the  other  party  by  registered 
letter,  and  is  compelled  to  allow  the  tardy  party  proper  time  of  prolongation 
if  no  exactly  determined  time  of  delivery  was  agreed  upon  and  if  the  nature  of 
the  contracts  permit  so  to  do.  If  on  time  contracts,  after  a  lapse  of  the  delivery 
time  agreed  upon,  a  part  of  the  quantity  contracted  for  has  not  been  delivered 
or  accei)ted,  respectively,  because  neither  the  seller  insisted  upon  acceptance  of 
the  goods  nor  the  consignee  required  shipment,  a  silent  prolongation  takes  place, 
and  the  rest  of  the  contract  in  regard  to  quantity  and  time  is  to  be  fulfilled 
with  shipments  averaged  in  the  same  way. 

TARDY    SHIPMENTS  COST    OF  DELIVERY. 

Paragraph  11. — If  a  contract  has  been  made  for  certain  time  of  delivery,  but 
with  open  particulars,  the  purchaser  in  the  absence  of  other  agreement  has  to 
mail  the  particulars  to  the  seller  at  least  eight  weeks  before  the  beginning  of 
the  month  in  which  the  term  of  delivery  in  question  is  ended,  otherwise  the 
latter  is  liable  for  no  tardiness  in  shipment.  In  case  of  tardy  shipments  the 
seller  has  the  right  to  fix  the  time  of  fulfillment  of  the  invoice  corresponding 
to  the  time  of  delivery  originally  contracted  for.  If  the  purchaser  omits  to 
send  off  the  particulars  in  time,  although  specially  requested  so  to  do,  the 
seller  has  the  right  to  fulfill  the  contract  in  any  make-up,  width,  and  yarn  qual- 
ity which  corresponds  to  the  price  basis  of  the  cloth.  If  no  price  basis  lias  been 
agreed  upon,  but  the  prices  for  the  different  kinds  have  been  agreed  upon,  and 
the  buyer,  in  spite  of  the  demands  from  the  shipper  for  particulars  in  regard 
to  the  amounts  to  be  delivered  of  the  various  kinds,  fails  to  comply,  the  shipper 
has  the  right  to  deliver  the  quantities  of  the  various  kinds  ordered  according 
to  his  own  wishes. 

Paragraph  12. — In  so  far  as  superior  force  makes  the  contracted  deliveries 
impossible  this  relieves  the  seller  and  the  manufacturer  and  also  the  seller 
of  foreign  products  from  the  necessity  of  delivery,  but  the  latter  only  insomuch 
as  it  is  a  question  as  to  the  delivery  of  goods  made  in  the  factory  of  the  par- 
ticular manufacturer  mentioned.  In  how  far  strikes,  epidemics,  officially  ascer- 
tained, or  breakdown  of  machinery  or  of  transmission  appliances  have  action 
upon  the  necessity  of  delivery  is,  in  case  of  controversy,  a  question  for  the 
court  of  arbitration. 

Paragraph  13. — If  nothing  else  has  been  agreed  upon  for  delivery  of  gray 
goods,  six  months'  time  is  understood  as  the  usual  conditions  against  accept- 
ance, from  the  date  of  invoice  or  cash,  with  a  3  per  cent  discount  within  fourteen 
days  from  the  date  of  invoice.  Settlement  is  to  be  made  at  the  domicile  of  the 
seller. 

Paragraph  14- — The  cost  of  delivery  of  gray  goods  into  the  house,  warehouse, 
or  to  the  forwarding  agent  of  the  buyer  in  Vienna,  on  the  Vienna  Plaza,  must 
be  borne  by  the  seller.  In  case  of  shipment  of  goods  to  the  provinces  the  costs 
of  delivery  of  forwarding  is  to  be  settled  by  the  buyer. 


REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


CARLSBAD. 

EXTENSIVE  COTTAGE  INDUSTRIES  IN  THE  DISTRICTS  OF  BOHEMIA. 

Consul  John  Steel  Twells,  in  the  following  report  from  Carlsbad, 
minutely  describes  the  cottage  industrial  life  in  that  part  of  Austria, 
so  many  of  the  products  of  which  are  sold  in  the  United  States : 

In  the  manufacturing  districts  of  Bohemia  goods  for  both  home 
supply  and  exportation  are  not  only  produced  in  factories,  but  to  a 
great  extent  the  raw  material  is  given  to  men,  women,  and  children 
and  taken  home,  where  all  members  of  the  family  engage  in  the  work 
of  producing  various  articles  which  are  sold  to  the  home  trade  or  ex- 
ported to  the  foreign  countries. 

This  method  is  known  in  Austria  as  "  Hausindustrie,"  or  home 
work,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  country  where  textiles,  glass,  lace  goods, 
gloves,  etc.,  are  made,  men,  women,  and  children  obtain  their  simple 
living  by  this  means,  and  consequently  it  is  of  great  importance  to 
thousands  of  poor  people  living  in  the  small  villages  adjacent  to  fac- 
tory centers,  enabling  them  to  make  a  living,  especially  during  the 
long  dreary  months  of  winter,  when  no  other  occupation  is  possible. 
Around  perhaps  the  only  table  in  the  only  room,  in  a  little  house,  the 
family  assemble,  the  man,  his  wife,  the  grandparents,  and  children 
with  other  members  of  the  family,  if  there  be  any.  When  evening 
comes  on,  an  oil  lamp,  a  candle,  or  even  chips  of  wood  are  the  only 
lights  by  which  they  can  work.  On  Thursdays,  Fridays,  and  Satur- 
days the  finished  articles  are  taken  to  the  factories  and  paid  for. 

"  It  is  very  hard  now,"  said  one  of  the  lace  exporters  from  Neudek 
the  other  day,  "  to  get  people  in  summer  to  make  laces.  They  prefer 
to  go  to  work  in  fields  or  picking  hops,  for  which  they  get  higher 
wages  than  by  making  laces.  Children  get  8  cents  a  day  at  that  time 
and  adults  from  25  cents  to  even  40  cents,  and  of  course  we  can  not 
afford  to  pay  such  high  wages  for  lace  making." 

GOVERNMENT  INTEREST  IN  IMPROVEMENT. 

The  Austrian  Government,  desirous  of  improving  this  sad  condi- 
tion of  laborers,  is  at  present  preparing  a  new  law  which  has  been 
handed  to  the  chambers  of  commerce  for  their  consideration  and 
judgment.  The  following  gives  the  numbers  of  persons  in  Bohemia 
who  do  home  work : 


Aussig   667 

Braunau  (linen)   4,786 

Dauba   54 

Deutsch  Gabel  (weavers)   4,695 

Friedland   498 

Gablonz     (glass    beads  and 

cheap  jewelry)   9,147 

Hohenelbe   (textile)   2,514 

Koeniggraetz   1, 182 


Leipa  (cloth,  linen)   3,916 

Leitmeritz    210 

Reichenberg   2,  256 

Rumburg  (weavers)   7, 819 

Senftenberg  (textile,  linen)   10,054 

Teplitz   1,  378 

Tetschen  (buttons,  linen)   3,068 

Trautenaii  (linen)   4,936 


143 


I 


144 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


In  the  district  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  in  which  parts  of  the 
consular  districts  of  Keichenberg,  Carlsbad,  and  Prague  are  situated, 
105,897  persons  do  such  home  work  as  has  been  described.  They  con- 
stitute more  than  one- fourth  of  the  entire  population  of  that  com- 
mercial district.  In  the  Reichenberg  section  68,649  persons  are  en- 
gaged in  home  work,  i.  e.,  outside  the  factories.  They  make  mostly 
textile  goods,  but  also  embroidered,  knitted,  worsted,  and  crocheted 
goods,  which  are  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the  textile  trade. 

Next  comes  glass,  stone,  earthen  ware  and  clay  goods,  in  which 
16,596  are  engaged;  three-fourths  of  these  workers  belong  to  the 
glass  trade,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest  home  industries  of  Bohemia; 
8,168  persons  make  stays,  gloves,  head  covers  (caps,  hats),  and  8,168 
do  cleaning  work  at  home;  6,427  make  wooden,  matted,  turned,  and 
carved  goods;  and  3,320  metal  goods,  chiefly  metal  turners.  In  the 
Erzgebirge,  which  belongs  to  the  consular  district  of  Carlsbad,  6,000 
persons  are  engaged  outside  the  factories  with  straw  and  bast  plat- 
ting. The  raw  material — simple  w"heat  straw — comes  from  the  hop 
district  of  Saaz,  while  bast  or  wooden  chips  are  made  from  Eussian 
ebony  wood. 

NUMEROUS  ARTICLES  OF  PRODUCTION. 

In  the  district  of  Senftenberg  are  located  the  basket  makers  and  the 
reed  twisters.  Mats,  pockets,  and  slippers  are  made  of  reed,  rush, 
etc.,  which  are  likewise  used  for  building  purposes,  especially  for 
reed  mats,  and  articles  for  smokers  (cigarette  and  cigar  holders,  etc.). 
In  northern  Bohemia  and  also  in  some  southern  parts  of  Bohemia,  as 
in  the  districts  of  Muenchengraetz,  Neupaka,  and  Senftenberg,  are  the 
shoemakers'  villages  and  towns,  mostly  inhabited  by  workers  who 
make  parts  of  shoes  at  home  for  the  wholesale  makers. 

Their  goods  are  called  "  market  goods,"  because  they  are  exhibited 
and  sold  on  stands  at  the  fairs  in  the  larger  manufacturing  districts 
which  are  held  every  week  or  month,  or  several  times  in  the  year, 
especially  in  the  districts  of  Bohmisch-Kamnitz,  and  at  Bensen, 
Tetschen,  and  Schluckenau.  Wooden  slippers  are  made  in  the  district 
of  Rumburg;  braces  at  Teplitz;  gloves  at  Bilin,  Kaaden,  and  at 
Prague,  also  at  Joachimstal  and  Abertham.  At  Schoenau  and  Hains- 
pach  (district  of  Schluckenau)  the  ribbon  weavers  are  located,  and  in 
a  southwestern  direction  from  Rumburg  are  the  wood  weavers  or 
makers  of  Sparterie  goods,  while  at  Rumburg  and  Bohmisch-Kam- 
nitz are  the  smoking-pipe  makers. 

In  many  of  the  forest  villages  barrels  are  made,  which  trade  is 
largely  encouraged  by  the  chemical  factories  at  Aussig,  that  employ 
several  thousand  workmen.  In  the  southwestern  districts  of  the 
Boehmerwald  are  many  hundred  makers  of  chip  boxes;  they  make 
also  agricultural  and  kitchen  goods  of  wood,  frames  for  brushes,- 
toothpicks,  and  wood  carved  goods.  Altogether  about  3,000  makers 
of  wooden  goods  are  scattered  in  the  various  villages  of  southern  and 
northern  Bohemia. 

CONFORMING  TO  CHANGING  DEMANDS. 

Other  kinds  of  home  work  depend  upon  the  factories  near  the  vil- 
lages. In  the  Riesengebirge  paper  bags  and  horn  or  stone  buttons  are 
made;  near  Reichenau  and  Gablonz  snuffboxes  were  formerly  made, 
but  when  the  use  of  snuff  decreased  a  new  trade  began,  viz,  the  mak- 


AUSTRIA  REPORTS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


145 


ing  of  cheap  oil  paintings  on  wood,  tin,  and  linen.  This  developed 
from  the  little  paintings  which  were  formerly  made  on  the  snuff- 
boxes; the  paintings  were  enlarged  and  the  new  industry  of  making 
oil  paintings  was  started.  The  emigration  to  the  United  States  from 
Bohemia  is  partly  connected  with  this  kind  of  work.  If  the  market 
is  good,  then  all  the  family  works  day  and  night  and  makes  a  living, 
but  if  the  market  is  bad,  they  lose  their  employment  and  lead  a  very 
poor  life.  The  wages  are  extremely  low.  In  the  Adlerhills  weekly 
wages  of  $1  to  $1.20  are  paid,  but  as  there  are  many  weeks  during  the 
year  when  no  work  can  be  had  the  average  weekly  earnings  are  not 
larger  than  80  cents.  In  good  times  husband  and  wife  work  alter- 
nately eighteen  hours  a  day.  If  the  scanty  habitations,  the  rough 
climate,  and  the  poor  soil  are  taken  into  consideration,  some  idea  can 
be  gained  of  how  great  is  the  poverty  in  these  mountain  villages.  Yet 
it  is  considered  of  great  value  that  chip-box  making  has  been  intro- 
duced, because  the  workers,  mostly  women  and  children,  earn  80  cents 
to  $1.40  per  week;  and  linen-shirt  buttons  are  now  made,  by  which 
wages  of  60  cents  to  80  cents  a  week  are  earned.  Weavers  who  make 
at  home  silk  and  Jacquard  and  art  work  earn  $1.40  to  $4  a  week.  The 
straw  and  bast  matters  earn  from  20  to  40  cents  a  day,  but  after  the 
"  season  "  the  wages  are  lowered.  Wood  carvers  earn  $1.20  to  $2.80  a 
week,  and  the  brush  makers  at  Gabel  from  $1.60  to  $2  a  week.  The 
wood  carvers  at  the  Wittigtal  earn  $1.60  to  $3.60  a  week,  and  the 
wood  and  mat  makers  at  Niemes  from  $1.20  to  $1.60  a  week. 

INCREASING  INCOME  ADJUSTMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  RELATIONS. 

In  this  consular  district  home  work  is  often  done  to  increase  the 
income.  People  go  to  work  during  daytime  and  in  the  evening  they 
spend  their  time  by  making  certain  goods.  The  artificial-flower 
makers  earn  $1  to  $2.40  a  week.  At  Prague  and  Joachimstal,  Aber- 
tham,  etc.,  in  the  consular  district  of  Carlsbad,  gloves  are  made. 
The  manufacturers  hand  the  leather  out  to  contractors  called  "  Nat- 
faktoren,"  who  distribute  the  work  among  the  people.  Hundreds 
of  women  are  thus  employed  in  this  district  who  earn  $1.20  to  $1.60 
a  week.  There  are  other  female  home  makers  of  straps,  whip 
makers,  cutters  of  visors  for  caps,  and  umbrella  makers. 

To  many  thousands  of  persons  home  work  gives  employment. 
There  are  districts  in  which  the  population  lives  entirely  from  this 
kind  of  work,  and  although  they  make  a  poor  living  it  is  a  benefit 
to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  home  work 
strongly  competes  with  the  smaller  manufacturing  trades.  In 
Vienna,  for  instance,  there  are  100,000  to  120,000  home  workers  mak- 
ing shoes  for  factories.  There  are  three  classes,  viz:  (1)  Masters 
who  work  with  assistants;  (2)  journeymen  who  work  for  weekly 
wages  and  take  on  assistant  hands,  the  latter  getting  food  and  lodg- 
ing and  very  small  wages,  and  (3)  "  Pfuschers  "  who  work  without 
assistants. 

The  difficulty  with  which  the  Austrian  Government  has  to  cop3  is 
that  the  small  trades  people  have  great  difficulty  to  compete  with 
home  work.  Many  thousands  of  both  classes  make  an  honest  living, 
but  one  class  is  pressing  the  other,  and  now  the  Austrian  Government 
is  studying  a  problem  to  regulate  home  work  in  such  a  way  that  it 
will  no  longer  affect  the  small  manufacturing  trades. 
54552—08  10 


i 


146 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUKOPE. 


PRAGUE. 

INCREASE  IN  SPINDLES,  LOOMS,  AND  MACHINERY  IN  RECENT  TEARS. 

Replying  to  an  inquiry,  Yice-Consul  Arnold  Weissberger,  of 
Prague,  furnishes  the  following  information  concerning  the  textile 
industry  of  Bohemia: 

There  has  been  an  increase  of  about  700,000  spindles  and  20,000 
looms  in  the  cotton  industry  of  Bohemia  during  recent  years.  There 
was  also  large  additions  of  machinery  last  year,  but  the  extent  is  yet 
impossible  to  obtain. 

With  the  exception  of  auxiliary  hands,  all  cotton-mill  operatives 
are  paid  by  contract,  and  their  daily  wages  average  as  follows : 


Class  of  workers. 

Wages. 

Class  of  workers. 

Wages. 

Spinner    male.. 

$0.80 

Weaver     __male- 

$0.40 
.44 
.44 
.40 
1.00 

Piecer  do  

Drawing-frame  attendant  female- 
Auxiliary  employees  

Throstler  female- 

.50 
.45 
.50 
.48 

Piecer  female- 
Warper  do  

Bobbin-machine  attendant  

Overseers    

The  hours  of  labor  are  generally  ten  per  day.  Some  spinning  mills 
are  Avorking  day  and  niglit,  with  double  shifts  of  employees,  of  ten 
hours  each  shift. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  general  information  regarding  the  housing 
of  operatives.  In  some  dwellings  the  rooming  space  costs  from  50  to 
60  cents  per  square  yard,  or  from  $12  to  $16  per  room  per  year.  As 
a  rule,  the  operatives  are  crowded  into  small  places,  say  8  or  0  per- 
sons to  about  30  square  yards.  In  the  country  the  dwellings  are 
rather  cheaper.  The  style  of  living  depends  chiefly  on  the  number 
of  breadwinners  in  a  single  family  and  their  income.  In  the  moun- 
tain districts  the  majority  of  the  operatives  live  on  coffee  and  pota- 
toes chiefly,  but  in  the  city  and  in  the  open  country  living  conditions 
are  somewhat  better. 

MILL  OPERATIVES  AND  MACHINERY. 

In  weaving  mills  one  operative  tends  3  looms  on  plain  cotton  goods, 
2  looms  on  fancy  goods,  and  1  loom  on  heavy  goods.  In  isolated 
cases,  when  mills  are  fitted  up  with  Northrop  looms,  a  weaver  and 
one  assistant  tend  12  looms.  These  looms  have  found  as  little  favor 
as  the  various  English  self-acting  looms.  In  the  spinning  depart- 
ment each  machine  is  tended  by  one  operative,  and  in  the  warping 
department  one  operative  tends  from  12  to  15  spindles. 

In  spinning  mills  with  self-acting  machines  four  operatives  are 
put  down  to  2,000  spindles,  with  flyers  one  operative  to  300  spindles, 
and  with  throstle  frames  one  operative  to  500  spindles. 

In  the  spinning  mills  English  machines  are  generally  used,  although 
some  mills  are  fitted  with  Alsatian  machines.  The  only  machines 
built  in  Austria  are  those  for  waste  spinning.  In  the  weaving  mills 
the  power  looms  are  mostly  Austrian  manufacture,  but  many  English 
looms  are  in  use.  The  sizing  engines  are  chiefly  English,  but  a  few 
Alsatian  machines  are  in  use.    The  warping  machines  are  English. 

As  to  speed  of  machinery,  it  is  estimated  that  small  cotton  looms 
make  180  to  190  revolutions  per  minute,  broad,  smooth  looms  about 
160,  and  Jacquard  looms  140  to  150.  [Samples  of  textiles  from 
Prague  are  on  exhibit  at  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 


AUSTRIA  REPOETS  FROM  CONSULAR  OFFICERS. 


147 


REICHENBERG. 

WAGES  IN  A  KNITTING,  LINEN,  AND  WOOLEN  MILL. 

Consul  Charles  B.  Harris  furnishes  the  following  information  con- 
cerning the  wages  paid  in  the  leading  textile  industry  of  Reichenberg. 
The  table  shows  wages  paid  overseers  and  operatives  in  the  north 
Bohemian  textile  mill : 


Operatives. 


Woolen  blankets  and  carpets: 
Mechanical  and  hand  weav- 
ers- 
Overseers  

Operatives- 
Male  

Female   

Finishers  

Spinner's  assistants — 

Male  

Female  

Draftsmen- 
Male  

Female  

Operators  under  ninteen 
years- 
Male  

Female  


Weekly  wages. 


$6.00  to  $7.10 


2.23  to 
2,23  to 
4. 20  to 

2.03  to 
1.82  to 


1.01  to 
1.01  to 


6.29 
4.00 
5.28 

5.98 
3.65 


3.65  to  7.10 
3.65  to  4.26 


2.82 
2.43 


Operatives. 


Woolen  and  half  woolen  ladies 
cloth: 

Male  

Female  

Cotton  and  woolen  knitting: 

Male  

Female  

Piecework — 

Male  

Female  

Linen  department: 

Male  

Female  

Piecework — 

Male  

Female  


Weekly  wages. 


$2.40 
1.80 


3.00 
2.76 


2.04 
2.16 


3.00 
2.16 


$5.07 


to  3.00 
to  2.40 


to  4.80 
to  3.00 


to  3.60 
to  2.40 


to  4.80 
to  3.00 


Payment  of  wages  is  made  each  Saturday.  The  mode  of  pay- 
ment generally  in  vogue  is  by  pay  roll  of  10  or  12  names.  The  total 
amount,  with  the  pay  roll,  is  handed  to  the  overseer,  who  pays  each 
operative  the  amount  set  opposite  his  name.  A  few  factories  use  the 
envelope  system,  while  at  other  factories  the  operatives  call  at  the 
office  for  their  wages.   The  hours  of  labor  are  ten. 

Manufacturers  are  compelled  by  law  to  insure  their  employees 
against  accident  and  sickness.  [Samples  of  Bohemian  textiles  trans- 
mitted by  Consul  Harris  can  be  seen  at  the  Bureau  of  Manufactures.] 


■» 

i 


HUNGARY 


149 


COTTON  FACTORIES. 


INDUCEMENTS   TO   ESTABLISH    MILLS  INCREASING    SPINDLAGE  PRESENT 

CONDITIONS  IN  THE  INDUSTRY. 

Cotton  manufacturing  in  Hungary  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  great  inducements  offered  by  the  Government 
to  accelerate  its  growth.  For  patriotic  reasons  the  people  wish  to  be 
at  least  economically  independent  of  Austria  and  are  sparing  no  pains 
to  foster  home  industries. 

Kozsahegy  (German  name  Kosenberg),  in  the  northern  part  of 
Hungary,  is  so  far  the  main  cotton  manufacturing  center  and  con- 
tains about  half  the  cotton  spindles.  This  industry  is  succeeding  to 
the  hand-loom  weaving  that  was  formerly  established  in  this  dis- 
trict by  Saxons.  Besides  Rozsahegy  the  mill  towns  are  Budapest, 
Dugaresa,  near  Trieste,  and  Rozsony,  which  lies  just  across  the  border 
near  Vienna.  The  largest  company  is  the  "  Ungarische  Textilindus- 
trie  Aktiengesellschaft,"  which  was  founded  at  Rozsahegy  in  1894, 
and  now  has  two  spinning  mills  of  50,000  and  54,000  spindles,  respec- 
tively, or  a  total  of  104,000  spinning  spindles,  7,000  twister  spindles, 
1,250  ordinary  looms,  and  900  Northrop  looms.  These  latter  were 
made  at  Rozsahegy  under  the  patent  bought  from  the  Draper  Com- 
pany. The  next  largest  company  is  the  "  Ungarische  BaumAvoll  In- 
dustrie Aktiengesellschaft,"  or,  as  it  is  known  by  Hungarians,  the 
"  Magyar  Pamutipar  R.  T.,"  at  Budapest,  which  has  13,792  spindles 
and  340  looms. 

The  present  (January,  1908)  status  of  the  Hungarian  cotton  man- 
ufacturing industry  is  furnished  to  me  by  the  Hungarian  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  as  follows: 


Description. 

Nximber. 

Spindles. 

Looms. 

Spinning  mills  only                               .   _    .  

2 
3 

14 
3 
1 

65.120 
85,040 

2,126 
2,953 

Spinning  and  Aveaving  mills  _    

Weave  mills  only   _         

Thread  mills    -  _                             -   -                 -  - 

20,000 
1,300 

W aste  spinning  mills                 -     -                   -   -  -   

Total  

23 

171,460 

5,079 

The  present  consumption  of  cotton  is  about  50,000  bales  a  year.  As 
yet  the  mills  are  mainly  on  coarse  goods,  Cabots  and  some  colored 
goods.  The  ones  that  make  finer  goods  have  to  send  the  cloth  to 
Bohemia  to  be  bleached. 

]5l 


152 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


SKILLED  HELP  OBTAINED  FROM  AUSTRIA. 

The  Hungarian  mills  suffer  from  the  disadvantage  of  starting  in  a 
new  section  and  away  from  the  various  machine  shops,  yarn  agencies, 
bleacheries,  and  the  allied  industries  that  gather  around  mill  cen- 
ters. The  Hungarian  operative  is  also  inferior  to  the  Austrian,  as  he 
is  unaccustomed  to  machinery.  For  this  reason  the  mills  are  forced 
to  import  Austrians  for  the  more  skilled  positions,  and  these  are 
obtained  from  the  mills  just  over  the  border -by  offering  special  in- 
ducements, such  as  higher  wages,  free  transportation,  etc.  This  bor- 
rowing of  their  operatives  is  not  relished  by  the  Austrian  mills,  but 
they  can  not  help  themselves.  Even  with  the  help  of  a  partial  force 
of  Austrians  the  Hungarian  mills  find  it  difficult  to  get  results  equal 
to  those  of  Austrian  mills.  The  mills  at  Budapest  have  the  advantage 
of  cheap  water  communication  down  the  Danube  with  Turkey  and  the 
Balkans,  but  otherwise  the  new  cotton  mills  need  all  the  concessions 
granted  them  by  the  Government  to  enable  them  to  succeed. 

The  help  question  is  one  of  the  most  important,  and  not  only  the  cot- 
ton mills  but  the  great  flour  mills  and  other  Hungarian  industries  are 
beginning  to  feel  the  drain  caused  by  the  departure  of  so  many  emi- 
grants to  America.  Just  at  present,  on  account  of  the  money  crisis  in 
America,  there  has  been  a  return  tide  of  the  floating  class,  but  most  of 
these  will  return  to  America  as  early  as  conditions  permit.  One  mill 
manager  referring  to  such  returned  workers  said  that  they  had  been 
spoiled  by  the  American  life;  that  before  they  left  they  were  tract- 
able workers,  and  recognized  that  the  man  who  paid  them  was  their 
superior,  but  that  now  they  regarded  themselves  as  fully  equal  to  any- 
one and  were  very  hard  to  manage. 

ENGLISH  MACHINERY  USED  THE  WAGES  PAID. 

Most  of  the  Hungarian  mills  use  English  machinery  and  are 
one-story  mills.  The  Magyar  Pamutipar  mill  at  Budapest  is  a  good 
type  of  the  new  mills  now  being  started  in  Hungary.  This  mill  has 
13,392  spindles  and  340  looms,  but  is  being  enlarged  to  30,000  spindles 
and  500  looms.  The  mill  is  one-story  with  posts  made  up  of  two  iron 
channel  beams  placed  back  to  back,  has  the  usual  cement  floors,  and 
saw-tooth  roof  throughout.  This  mill  mixed  sawdust  with  the  cement 
so  as  to  make  a  floor  with  a  little  more  "  give  "  in  it,  and  one  that 
would  not  be  so  cold  for  the  help  to  stand  on.  Most  of  the  machinery 
is  from  England,  but  some  is  from  Germany,  while  the  boilers  and 
engines  were  made  in  Budapest.  The  looms  are  the  overpick  type 
and  the  spinning  frames  have  the  English  system  of  top  rolls.  Cloth 
is  measured  in  centimeters,  but,  as  is  the  case  in  Italy,  Switzerland, 
and  Austria,  the  yarn  numbering  is  on  the  English  system  and  the 
clocks  on  the  speeders,  etc.,  read  in  English  hanks  of  840  yards.  The 
wages  paid  at  this  mill  are  as  follows  : 

Picker  hands:   Men,  2  crowns  (crown=20,3  cents)  ;  women,  1.5  crowns  a  day. 
Cards:  2.6  crowns  (8  cards  to  a  man)  ;  card  grinder,  4  crowns. 
Draw  frames:  1.5  crowns  on  tlie  average,  paid  by  hanl^  clock. 
Slubbers:  2  crowns  a  day  average,  paid  by  bank. 

Mules:  Two  mules  (2,000  spindles)  on  No.  20s  reiiuire  1  spinner,  at  5  crowns; 
2  piecers,  at  3.50  crowns,  and  2  boys,  at  2.50  crowns. 

Ring  spinning:  Girls  run  one  side  of  200  spindles  each,  get  off  about  8  hanks 
a  day,  and  are  paid  1.2  crowns  to  1.4  crowns  a  day ;  they  do  their  own  doffing. 


HUNGARY  COTTON  FACTORIES. 


153 


Reelers  are  paid  by  the  pound  and  make  1.5  to  2  crowns  a  day. 

Weavers  run  mostly  on  Cabots;  tliey  are  paid  2  crowns  for  100  meters 
(meter=39.37  inches)  of  15  pick  (per  quarter  inch)  goods,  and  other  cloth  in 
proportion. 

Coal  costs  this  mill  96  heller  per  100  kilos,  which  is  only  $1.95  a 
ton,  but  is  Hungarian  coal  of  only  some  4,500  calories.  The  mill  is 
now  erecting  a  large  brick  tenement  house  within  the  mill  grounds 
for  the  operatives.  Each  family  will  have  a  large  room,  a  kitchen, 
and  a  small  room,  at  a  cost  of  2  crowns  per  week,  and  the  mill  in- 
tends also  to  furnish  them  with  provisions  and  with  coal  at  cost.  The 
mill  is  building  this  at  considerable  cost  so  as  to  secure  a  class  of 
steady  help.  The  object  in  view  is  that  the  operative  shall  give  his 
entire  thought  to  his  work  and  that  the  mill  will  furnish  him  with 
everything  needed  and  look  after  his  wants  completely. 

THE  HAND  LOOM  STILL  FLOURISHES  HOUSING  WORKMEN. 

This  mill  besides  its  cloth  sales  has  a  yarn  production  that  it  sells 
to  hand  workers.  Robert  Weiss,  the  treasurer,  stated  that  there  are 
required  for  the  hand-loom  weavers  15,000,000  pounds  of  bundle  yarn 
yearly,  part  of  which  was  supplied  by  Hungarian  mills  and  part  im- 
ported. Hungary  is  one  of  the  countries  where  the  hand  loom  still 
flourishes  and  there  are  quite  a  large  number,  especially  in  the  sec- 
tions farthest  removed  from  the  large  towns. 

Some  of  the  mills  furnish  houses  for  their  operatives  and  some  do 
not.  One  manager  with  whom  I  talked  thought  that  it  was  best  for 
the  hands  to  find  their  own  lodging  places,  for  when  mills  furnished 
houses  it  tended  to  concentrate  the  help  in  one  place  and  so  accentuate 
class  interests.  At  Budapest  there  is  a  company  organized  especially 
for  building  homes  for  workingmen,  and  they  have  recently  built 
100  in  the  neighborhood  of  two  textile  plants.  Each  single  house 
contains  one  large  room,  kitchen,  pantry,  and  attic,  and  there  are  120 
square  meters  of  land  rented  with  the  house.  The  rent  of  each  house 
is  from  2G5  to  285  crowns  ($54  to  $58)  a  year. 

The  Hungarian  mill  families  as  a  rule  live  in  very  crowded  quar- 
ters and  their  fare  is  exceedingly  simple,  meat  or  eggs  being  very  rarely 
indulged  in,  but  the  conditions  of  life  are  better  than  those  that  obtain 
on  the  farm  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  operatives  are  fairly 
well  satisfied.  Though  taken  all  in  all  the  cotton-mill  hand  with  his 
steady  work  has  a  better  existence  than  the  farmer,  there  seems  to  be 
a  tendency  among  the  people  to  class  factory  work  as  lower  than  farm 
work,  and  this  operates  in  many  cases  against  the  mills  obtaining  a 
full  supply  of  local  help. 

CARING  FOR  OPERATIVES  IMPORTING  HELP. 

The  operatives  have  their  own  sick-benefit  societies.  One  textile 
manufacturer  has  also  instituted  a  pension  system  for  his  employees. 
The  company  sets  aside  every  week  a  sum  equivalent  to  8  per  cent  of 
its  pay  roll  for  this  fund.  Any  employee  found  medically  unfit  after 
ten  years'  work  will  be  paid  a  pension  of  30  per  cent  of  his  regular 
wages,  and  his  pension  will  be  increased  2  per  cent  for  every  year 
worked  over  ten,  so  that  for  twenty  years'  work  the  pension  will 
amount  to  half  pay  and  for  forty-five  years'  work  will  be  full  pay 
for  the  remainder  of  his  days.  This  mill  also  has  a  special  pension 
fund  for  its  officials,  but  with  the  exception  that  they  are  required  to 


154 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUEOPE. 


furnish  half  and  the  mill  half  of  the  amounts  set  aside  every  month 
for  this  purpose. 

Mill  men  complain  of  a  lack  of  labor  everywhere.  In  Transylvania 
there  is  the  peculiar  situation  of  laborers  going  elsewhere  for  work, 
when  their  own  industries  are  crying  out  for  labor.  There  are  Szecklers 
(Magyars) ,  Saxons,  and  Roumanians  in  this  district,  but  the  Szecklers 
are  of  a  migratory  disposition  and  had  rather  go  to  Roumania  and 
work  part  of  the  year  there  than  work  steadily  in  one  place,  so  for 
regular  work  the  mills  have  to  import  help  from  as  far  as  Italy  and 
Macedonia. 

STRIKES  ATTRIBUTED  TO  AMERICAN  INFLUENCE. 

Though  the  cotton  mills  are  small,  the  labor  question  with  them  is 
already  a  vital  one.  Labor  throughout  Hungary  is  beginning  to  or- 
ganize, and  there  are  an  increasing  number  of  strikes.  The  strikes 
have  ceased  to  be  simply  for  shorter  hours  and  higher  pay,  but  have 
become  an  instrument  in  the  fight  for  political  power  by  the  labor 
unions.  The  walking  delegate  is  in  course  of  development,  and  in 
nearly  all  cases  one  of  the  main  demands  of  the  strikers  is  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  union.  They  also  demand  that  any  foreman  obnoxious  to 
a  majority  of  the  workers  be  discharged,  that  the  plant  be  shut  down 
on  May  1, "  Labor  Day,"  and  also  on  special  occasions  when  the  unions 
desire  to  make  political  demonstrations.  The  employers  call  the 
spread  of  the  union  system  the  "American  influence,"  and  are  very 
much  opposed  to  it.  The  department  of  commerce,  in  its  inspectors' 
reports,  advised  the  manufacturers  to  organize  to  meet  the  workmen's 
organizations,  and  this  is  now  being  done  in  all  branches.  Some  of 
these  organizations  extend  throughout  the  country,  so  that  in  case  of 
lockouts  the  laborers  can  not  obtain  work  at  any  mill  in  Hungary. 

THE  DUAL  MONARCHY. 

Hungary  and  Austria,  while  nominally  united  in  a  dual  monarchy, 
are  really  on  a  treaty  basis.  According  to  the  new  law  which  came 
into  effect  in  January,  1907,  "  all  of  the  industrial  requirements  of  the 
State,  and  of  municipal  authorities,  parish  councils,  or  of  any  insti- 
tute or  institutions  maintained  or  subsidized  by  the  same,  and  of  all 
home  enterprises  engaged  in  the  service  of  public  traffic,  must  be  sup- 
plied by  the  industry  of  the  countries  of  the  Holy  Hungarian  Crown." 
Exemption  may  be  granted  only  in  individual  cases  where  there  is 
some  special  reason. 

To  insure  industrial  development  of  the  country,  the  Government 
offers  to  remit  taxes  and  duties,  haul  at  cost  on  state  railways,  and  in 
some  cases  to  grant  subsidies  to  new  enterprises  locating  in  Hungary. 
The  concessions  granted  are  very  similar  to  those  being  granted  by 
the  Italian  Government  to  new^  mills  in  southern  Italy,  but  are  even 
more  favorable  in  their  scope. 

According  to  the  law  above  quoted  favors  are  to  be  granted  to 
"manufacturing  enterprises  (factories)  recently  established  in  the 
lands  of  the  Holy  Hungarian  Crown  and  equipped  with  the  latest 
appliances  of  technical  art,  which  produce  articles  not  hitherto  pro- 
duced at  all  by  manufacture  in  the  said  lands  of  the  Holy  Hungarian 
Crown,  or  at  any  rate  not  in  sufficient  quantities  practically  to  satisfy 


HUNGAKY  COTTON  FACTORIES. 


156 


the  demand,  or  which  produce  articles  the  increased  production  of 
which  is  desirable  from  an  economic  point  of  view."  This  law  is 
applicable  to  all  new  factories,  but  under  its  application  cotton  manu- 
facturing is  especially  favored. 

CONCESSIONS  TO  COTTON  MILLS. 

Among  the  concessions  granted  to  new  cotton  factories  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  Exemption  from  the  payment  of  direct  state  taxes  due  on  the 
output  of  the  factory,  and  exemption  from  all  municipal  and  parish 
dues  imposed  on  those  paying  the  said  direct  taxes.  This  also  includes 
exemption  from  the  payment  of  tolls  levied  by  the  Eoyal  Hungarian 
minister  of  agriculture,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  on  state  high- 
roads and  bridges,  and  in  state  roadsteads  or  harbors. 

2.  Exemption  from  the  payment  of  Crown  (treasury)  and  parish 
dues  and  charges  exacted  for  the  acquisition,  lease,  and  transfer  of 
factory  sites  and  buildings,  and  of  all  machinery  constituting  an 
appendage  thereof,  as  well  as  for  the  registration  of  the  lease,  and  of 
all  equivalents  of  the  same;  further,  if  the  said  enterprises  take  the 
form  of  limited  liability  companies  or  cooperations,  or  if,  during  the 
period  for  which  the  favors  granted  are  in  force,  they  be  transformed 
into  limited  liability  companies  or  cooperations,  or  be  reorganized  or 
become  associated  with  other  companies,  they  may,  in  addition,  be 
exempted  from  the  payment  of  stamps  and  dues,  parish  dues,  and 
charges  on  contracts  executed  on  the  occasion  of  the  formation  of  the 
company,  the  increase  of  the  capital  of  the  company,  and  the  issue 
of  shares  or  preference  shares,  whether  such  be  issued  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  company  or  later  on  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  capital 
of  the  company,  and  on  all  other  deeds  executed  in  connection  with 
the  said  contracts,  on  all  legal  transactions  referring  to  the  paying 
in  of  shares  or  preference  shares  as  well  as  of  cooperation  debentures 
and  on  all  documents  relating  to  the  same  as  well  as  on  the  transfer 
of  any  propjerty  executed  for  that  purpose. 

3.  All  building  materials  required  for  the  construction  or  expan- 
sion of  factories  and  industrial  establishments,  as  previously  men- 
tioned, shall  be  conveyed  by  the  state  railways  or  railways  subsidized 
by  the  state  at  a  rate  covering  only  the  working  expenses,  as  well  as 
all  machinery  and  parts  of  machinery  required  for  the  equipment  of 
the  same,  and  in  general  all  articles  of  equipment.  Side  tracks  and 
short  industrial  lines  required  by  said  enterprises  shall  be  built  by 
the  state  at  cost.  Any  shunting  executed  for  said  enterprises  shall 
be  at  cost  of  merely  the  working  expenses,  or  they  may  be  specially 
exempted  from  all  shunting  charges  for  a  certain  period. 

LIBERAL  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  LAW  TO  BENEFIT  MILLS. 

In  interpreting  the  above  the  Minister  of  Commerce  ordered : 
The  freight  charged  for  the  articles  above  enumerated,  which  shall 
be  carried  by  slow  freight  trains,  shall  be,  if  they  belong  to  Class  A, 
i.  e.,  "  sundries,"  in  cases  where  charges  are  paid  for  at  least  5,000 
kilograms  (5  tons)  per  car  and  letter  of  conveyance,  a  unit  of  32 
fillers  (6.4  cents)  per  100  kilograms  (220.4  pounds)  per  kilometer,  a 
charge  of  8  fillers  (1.6  cents)  per  100  kilograms  for  "  terminals,"  and 


156 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


other  charges  payable  on  the  basis  of  the  legal  freight  dues ;  if,  how- 
ever, the  articles  in  question  belong  to  any  other  freight  class,  in  cases 
where  charges  are  paid  per  gross  weight  for  at  least  10,000  kilograms 
per  car  and  letter  of  conveyance,  a  unit  of  20  fillers  (4  cents)  per  100 
Idlograms  per  kilometer,  a  charge  of  4  fillers  (0.8  cent)  per  100  kilo- 
grams for  "  terminals,"  and  the  other  charges  payable  on  the  basis 
of  the  legal  freight  dues.  The  smallest  charge  per  100  kilograms 
shall  be  §  fillers  (1.6  cents).  For  the  conveyance  of  goods  on  in- 
dustrial lines  connecting  factories  with  the  nearest  railway  station 
the  "  working  expenses  "  to  be  charged  shall  correspond  to  50  per  cent 
of  the  regulation  charges  in  force  on  the  state  railways  and  railways 
enjoying  a  guaranty  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  state.  In  cases 
where  only  working  expenses  are  charged,  the  loading  and  unloading 
of  the  goods  shall  be  carried  out  at  the  cost  of  the  party  enjoying  the 
concession. 

The  reduction  in  freight  stipulated  above  generally  takes  the  form 
of  a  refunding  of  the  surplus  over  working  expenses. 

4.  Permanent  exemption  from  house  rates  is  given  to  all  dwellings 
of  workmen  built  by  the  factory  in  conformity  to  the  requirements  of 
hygiene,  which  are  offered  to  laborers  as  part  payment  of  wages,  or  on 
condition  that  a  certain  part  of  their  wages  shall  be  devoted  to  the 
payment  of  rent  or  the  acquiring  of  said  dwellings  on  the  hire-pur- 
chase system.  Also  all  dwellings  built  by  outsiders  for  the  use  of 
workmen  as  above  may  be  exempted  from  all  house  rates  for  a  period 
of  twenty  years. 

This  exemption  from  house  rates  includes  not  only  house  rates,  but 
also  the  general  income  tax  levied  in  proportion  to  the  same,  the 
national  additional  tax  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  (sick  relief  fund), 
and  all  other  public  and  parish  dues  contingent  on  the  said  house 
rates. 

STATE  SUBSIDIES  IN  ADDITION  TO  CONCESSIONS. 

Besides  the  concessions  granted  above,  the  Minister  of  Commerce  is 
authorized,  where  cases  of  general  interest  render  the  creation,  ex- 
pansion, or  maintenance  of  a  certain  industry  desirable,  to  concede 
a  State  subsidy  to  certain  enterprises  in  the  form  either  of  a  lump  sum 
or  an  annual  subvention,  payable  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  or  to 
promote  the  creation  of  such  enterprises  by  the  offer  of  state  support 
by  participation.  Under  this  law  the  new  cotton  mills  are  being 
granted  a  subsidy  equal  to  one-fourth  of  their  capital  stock,  and  this 
is  paid  to  the  company  in  ten  yearly  installments. 

The  granting  of  any  or  all  of  the  concessions  described  may  be 
petitioned  for  within  one  year  of  the  day  on  which  the  factory  started 
work,  and  the  minister  may  also  guarantee  the  granting  of  con- 
cessions even  before  the  factory  is  established.  Favors  granted  are 
for  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  except  where  otherwise  stated.  A 
petition  may  be  presented  for  the  prolongation  of  favors  enjoyed 
after  the  latter  have  become  invalid,  but  any  such  petition  must  be 
presented  within  one  year  after  the  concession  previously  granted 
expires. 

An  essential  condition  of  any  concession- is  that  three-fourths  of  the 
workmen  and  officials  shall  be  Hungarian  citizens.  Furthermore, 
factories  or  industrial  establishments  enjoying  such  favors  are  bound 


HUNGARY  COTTON  FACTORIES. 


157 


to  ]3rocure  all  the  articles  for  building  -and  equipment,  as  well  as  the 
materials  and  half-finished  products  required  in  working,  from  home 
factories  and  producers,  provided  such  are  made  or  produced  in  the 
required  form  in  the  lands  of  the  Holy  Hungarian  Crown.  In  cases 
where  exemption  is  justified  the  minister  of  commerce  may  grant 
exemption. 

In  1900  there  were  80,000  spindles  in  the  cotton  mills  of  Hungary; 
at  the  present  time  there  are  in  operation  and  in  course  of  erection 
200,000.  It  is  expected  that  the  government  aid  now  being  extended 
to  the  mills  will  result  in  the  industry  being  largely  increased  in  the 
next  few  years. 


SWITZERLAND 


159 


m. 


COTTON  GOODS  PRODUCTION. 


SLOAV  PROGRESS  IN  MANUFACTURIN(i  CONDITIONS  AMONG  THE  MILL 

OPERATIVES  A  TARIFF  FOR  PROTECTION. 

The  cotton  mills  of  Switzerland  have  remained  almost  stationary 
for  the  last  ten  years.  Only  in  special  lines  of  cotton  manufacturing, 
such  as  the  embroidery  business,  has  there  been  any  progress,  and  the 
advance  in  this  direction  has  been  of  great  help  in  enabling  the  mills 
to  survive  by  furnishing  an  outlet  for  Swiss  cloth  and  yarn. 

The  Swiss  cotton  mill  men  have  had  to  face  higher  and  higher 
tariff  walls  in  neighboring  countries  and  also  a  much  keener  compe- 
tition due  to  these  countries  rapidly  enlarging  their  factories.  The 
Swiss  markets  for  yarn  and  clotli  lie  mainly  among  their  neighbors 
in  Europe,  so  the  result  of  the  advancing  industrialism  of  their 
former  customers  has  been  to  cut  off  their  orders  on  all  coarser  grades 
and  drive  the  Swiss  mills  to  finer  and  finer  goods.  In  their  home 
market  they  have  to  compete  with  the  inroads  of  the  Italian  coarse 
counts  and  the  English  fine  counts,  to  which  is  added,  in  times  of 
depression,  sporadic  imports  of  German,  Belgian,  and  French  goods, 
which  are  dumped  into  Switzerland  as  the  nearest  market  at  Avhat 
the  Swiss  refer  to  as  "  bankrupt  prices."  The  Swiss  tariff  was  raised 
in  1905  especially  to  enable  them  to  control  their  home  market 
against  being  used  as  a  dumping  ground. 

DISADVANTAGES  UNDER  WHICH  SWISS  MILLS  ARE  OPERATED. 

The  Swiss  mills  have  to  import  all  their  coal  and  cotton  and  most 
of  their  machinery,  and  a  great  number  of  the  mills  are  located  in 
isolated  places  where  water  power  was  available  and  where  country 
help  could  be  obtained  cheaply.  This  has  proved  quite  a  drawback, 
for  the  unfavorable  location  has  made  it  hard  to  keep  help,  and 
some  mills  are  put  to  a  good  deal  of  extra  expense  for  hauling. 
There  is  a  dearth  of  local  help,  and  the  mills  are  driven  more  and 
more  to  the  employment  of  Italians  and  Germans.  The  increase  of 
the  embroidery  business,  while  of  advantage,  in  affording  an  in- 
creased home  outlet,  has  accentuated  the  labor  difficulty  of  the  mills 
by  enticing  away  their  best  workmen.  Many  also  go  into  the  silk 
business.  AYlien  the  silk  and  embroidery  lines  are  slack  the  cotton 
mills  have  an  abundance  of  help,  but  at  other  times  they  have  to 
stand  a  constant  drain  w^hich  they  only  make  good  by  the  employment 
of  Italians.  The  Swiss  still  have  very  cheap  labor,  but  on  coarse 
goods  the  Italians  have  the  advantage,  because  their  labor  is  10  per 
cent  cheaper,  and  their  mills  can  run  at  night,  Avhile  on  fine  goods  the 
English  have  the  advantage  because  of  the  grenter  efficiency  of  their 
operatives,  Avhich  more  than  compensates  for  the  higher  wages  paid. 


n4r)n2— OS  ii 


161 


162 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


There  are  no  Government  statistics  as  to  cotton  manufacturing  in 
Switzerland,  for  the  reason  that  the  control  of  the  country  is  so  de- 
centralized there  is  no  power  delegated  by  the  people  for  such  a  pur- 
pose. The  Government  is  authorized  to  employ  factory  inspectors 
to  see  that  the  Confederacy  laws  in  regard  to  factory  operation  are 
carried  out,  and  these,  in  their  occasional  reports,  give  the  number 
of  male  and  female  operatives,  the  number  of  accidents,  etc.,  but  any 
statistics  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  industry  can  only  be  obtained 
from  outside  sources. 

SPINDLES,  LOOMS,  AND  MILLS. 

The  president  of  the  Swiss  cotton  manufacturers  association  (the 
Schweizerischer  Spinner-,  Zwirmer-,  und  Weber- Verein)  gives  the  fol- 
lowing as  the  number  of  spinning  and  twister  spindles  in  Switzerland 
on  January  1,  11)07,  with  a  partial  list  of  the  number  of  looms. 


Canton. 

Spindles, 

Twister 
spindles. 

Looms. 

Canton. 

Spindles. 

Twister 
spindles. 

Looms. 

Zurich-.   

631,818 
275,228 
200,642 
92,470 
87,992 
50,140 
50,000 

30,382 
15,492 

8,197 
3,057 
3,900 
706 

Solothurn           _  . 

30,244 
13,492 
12,000 

102 
1,474 

St.  Gall  

Glarus-- 

Thurgau_-   

Luzern  _  _  .   

Aargau  

8,022 

Schaffhausen  

3,400 

Zug  

Appenzell   

166 
18,842 

Sc'hwys--      -   -  - 

831 
400 

Total  .  - 

Bern  

1,474,026 

57,296 

Of  the  looms  2,096  were  given  as  being  on  colored  goods,  and  602 
were  Jacquard  looms.  The  great  bulk  of  the  spindles  are  mule  spin- 
dles. The  number  of  looms  stated  is  only  partial,  due  to  the  fact  that 
some  Aveave  mills  are  independent  of  the  association. 

The  figures  for  January  1,  1908,  from  the  same  authority,  show 
1,499,170  spinning  spindles,  with  9,900  operatives;  117,782  doubling 
spindles,  with  2,342  operatives,  and  22,709  looms,  with  13,854  opera- 
tives. 

The  cotton  mills  are  entirely  in  the  northeastern  section  of  Switzer- 
land, mainly  in  the  cantons  of  Zurich,  St.  Gall  and  Glarus.  The 
city  of  Zurich  is  the  largest  and  most  important  commercial  center 
of  Switzerland,  and  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry  (outside  of 
the  special  line  of  embroidery  which  centers  at  St.  Gall)  has  its 
headquarters  at  that  point.  There  are  few  mills  at  Zurich,  but  the 
larger  mills  have  their  offices  there,  most  of  the  banking  and  export 
business  is  carried  on  at  that  city,  and  the  manufacturers  association 
has  its  office  there. 

SIZE  or  FACTORIES  AND  COST  OF  OPERATING. 

There  are  cotton  mills  at  Winterthur,  Wald,  Flums,  Baar,  Wet- 
ziken,  Mels,  etc.,  but  the  mills  are  so  scattered  that  none  of  these 
places  can  be  claimed  as  big  cotton  mill  centers  and,  in  fact,  Switzer- 
land has  no  great  mill  center,  as  each  owner  has  tried,  it  would  seem, 
to  locate  his  mill  as  far  away  from  any  other  mill  as  the  small  limits 
of  the  district  would  permit.  Most  of  the  mills  are  small,  the  aver- 
age being  22,000  spindles  or  300  looms.  There  are  four  yarn  mills 
containing  over  50,000  spindles,  the  hirgest  one  being  at  Zurich,  and 
containing  179,520  spindles,  one  at  Flums  with  100,000  spindles,  one 


SWITZERLAND  COTTON  GOODS  PRODUCTIONS. 


163 


at  Baar  with  58,068  spindles,  and  one  at  Langenthal  with  50,000 
spindles.  The  weave  mills  with  over  300  looms  are  nine  in  number, 
which  contain  from  500  to  840  looms. 

About  50  per  cent  of  the  cotton  mills  are  operated  by  water  power, 
40  per  cent  by  steam,  and  10  per  cent  by  electric  or  other  motive  power. 
The  new  mills  are  mostly  steam  or  electric,  and  those  that  utilize 
water  power  have  it  electrically  transmitted,  and  no  longer  locate  at 
the  fall,  as  was  necessary  with  the  old  mills.  A  manager  of  one  of  the 
water-driven  mills  told  me  that  while  his  motive  power  was  cheaper 
than  that  of  the  steam-driven  mills,  in  regard  to  direct  operation,  the 
difference  was  small,  and  that  if  the  interest  be  figured  on  what  they 
had  had  to  pay  for  buying  up  water  rights,  to  prevent  the  stream 
being  diverted  for  other  purposes,  as  well  as  the  costs  of  canal  and 
flume  and  upkeep,  his  power  was  actually  costing  him  more  than  that 
paid  by  the  steam-power  mills.  The  majority  of  the  Swiss  mills  are 
one  or  two  story  buildings,  'of  brick  or  stone,  with  sawtooth  roofs. 
The  steam-heating  pipes  are  usually  fastened  to  the  wall  about  a  foot 
above  the  floor,  and  are  made  with  projecting  flanges  every  couple  of 
inches,  so  as  to  give  the  greatest  amount  of  radiating  surface. 

The  complete  cost  of  a  spinning  mill  is  given  by  the  president  of  the 
spinners'  association  at  about  80  francs  ($15.44)  a  spindle.  Most  of 
the  textile  machinery  is  imported  from  England,  especially  the  spin- 
ning machinery,  though  a  good  deal  of  weaving  machinery  is  made  in 
Switzerland,  and  some  machinery,  mainly  dyeing  and  finishing,  comes 
from  Germany.  There  is  an  import  duty  of  77.2  cents  per  220  pounds 
on  textile  machinery.  All  of  the  embroidery  machinery  is  made  in 
Switzerland.  Looms  made  in  Zurich  are  not  only  operated  in  Switz- 
erland, but  are  largely  used  in  Italy,  and  some  exported  to  other  coun- 
tries. All  coal  used  in  Switzerland  has  to  be  imported  and  the 
present  (Januarv  1,  1908)  price  of  German  coal  landed  at  Zurich  is 
34.3  francs  ($6.62)  a  ton. 

FACTORY  LAWS  AND  MILL  EMPLOYEES. 

In  regard  to  legal  restrictions,  children  under  14  years  of  age 
can  not  work  in  the  mills.  The  weekly  hours  of  labor  in  the  mills 
are  64,  11  hours  for  five  days  and  9  hours  Saturday.  The  usual 
hours  for  mills  Avorking  this  time  are  from  6  to  11.30,  and  from  1  to 
6.30.  There  is  a  continuous  campaign  waged  by  the  workers  for 
shorter  hours,  however,  and  most  of  the  mills  do  not  now  run  over 
10  hours,  some  only  9,  and  the  prospect  is  for  still  shorter  hours. 

One  interesting  feature  of  the  Swiss  laws  is  that  no  factory  is 
allowed  to  work  at  night,  and  by  night  is  meant  from  8  p.  m.  to  6  a.  m. 
For  any  overtime  a  permit  has  to  be  obtained  from  the  local  authori- 
ties, and  only  in  very  rare  cases,  such  as  the  partial  loss  of  the  factory 
by  fire,  is  a  mill  allowed  to  run  up  to  12  o'clock  at  night,  and  then  only 
with  extra  help ;  in  no  case  is  all-night  work  allowed.  Italy,  for  this 
reason,  has  heretofore  been  able  to  displace  Switzerland  in  certain 
lines,  because  of  the  cheapened  cost  due  to  night  and  day  work,  but 
under  the  new  Italian  laAV  women  and  children  can  not  work  at 
night,  and  as  the  Italian  mills  are  operated  mainly  by  women  and 
children  this  practically  has  the  same  effect  as  the  Swiss  prohibition. 


164 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


The  Swiss  laws  are  very  particular  in  regard  to  precautions 
against  accidents,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  report  made 
by  the  government  inspectors  in  1906  shows  that  cotton  manufac- 
turing is  the  safest  industry  in  Switzerland,  for,  with  the  largest 
number  of  establishments  and  much  the  largest  number  of  opera- 
tives, it  yet  furnished  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  accidents.  The 
percentage  of  accidents  in  the  various  industries  according  to  the 
report  was  as  follows : 


Industries. 

Per  cent . 

Industries. 

Per  cent. 

Metals  and  machines  

29.20 
15.77 
14.98 
14.93 
10.45 
8.G9 

Paper  making  .__    

8.44 

Woodworking  .    

Work  in  brass,  etc   -   

1.54 
.97 

Cement,  bricks    

Textile  industry   

Food,  stimulants  — _  __       .  . 

Total            _    _    _ 

Clocks,  jewelry     

100.00 

Chemical  industry  

IMPORTING  FOREIGN  AVORKERS. 

A  government  report  in  1902  (the  latest)  gave  the  number  of 
workers  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry  in  Switzerland  as 
49,023,  of  which  8,392,  or  17.1  per  cent,  were  children  from  14  to  18 
years  of  age;  22,880,  or  46.7  per  cent,  women,  and  17,751,  or  36.2 
per  cent,  men.  The  proportion  of  women  and  children  tends  to  in- 
crease, due  to  the  sharp  world  competition  making  it  imperative  to 
keep  down  costs  which  are  rising  with  higher  price  of  materials  and 
higher  wage  tariffs.  Of  the  help  brought  in  from  Italy  the  major- 
ity are  girls.  The  proportion  of  foreign  help  is  becoming  larger 
every  year.  Of  the  49,023  workers  in  1902,  44,886  were  Swiss,  1,673 
were  Italians,  1,547  Germans,  874  Austrians,  and  43  other  nationali- 
ties. This  8.85  per  cent  of  foreign  operatives  has  since  largely 
increased,  and  about  an  eighth  of  the  hands  are  now  from  other 
countries.  Italians  are  used  throughout  Switzerland  for  the  cheaper 
jobs,  such  as  road  making,  etc.,  and  since,  as  a  rule,  the  wages  are 
lower  in  Italy  than  in  the  other  surrounding  countries,  most  of  the 
foreign  operatives  are  Italians ;  but  the  increasing  demand  for  opera- 
tives in  Italy  itself  will  in  time  cut  off  this  source  of  cheap  labor. 
The  Swiss  are  patient,  industrious  workers,  and  however  small  their 
wages  they  always  contrive  to  have  an  account  at  the  savings  bank. 
In  the  country  their  diet  seems  to  be  coffee,  bread,  and  potatoes  three 
times  a  day,  with  meat  and  wine  on  Sundays. 

Formerly  there  was  a  great  deal  of  hand-loom  weaving  in  Switzer- 
land, but  this  is  noAv  a  thing  of  the  past.  In  the  embroidery  business 
around  St.  Gall  there  is  quite  a  large  house  industry,  but  even  there 
the  hand  embroidery  machines  are  being  displaced  by  machines 
operated  by  electricity  furnished  by  lines  from  the  power  companies. 
Hand  looms  are  now  to  be  met  w^ith  only  in  isolated  homes. 

The  largest  cotton  manufacturing  company  in  Switzerland  has  its 
office  in  Zurich,  but  the  mill  is  located  at  the  small  village  of  Win- 
disch,  some  20  miles  north  of  Zurich.  This  mill  has  179,520  spindles, 
and  just  at  present  is  doing  a  good  business,  but  it  is  significant  of 
the  fight  of  Swiss  manufacturers  against  adverse  conditions  that  in 
1900  this  mill  had  246,692  spindles,  and  that  as  spinning  frames  have 
worn  out  they  have  not  been  replaced. 


SWITZERLAND  COTTON  GOODS  PRODUCTIONS. 


165 


WAGES  ANI>  HOUSING  OPERATIVES. 

The  hours  of  labor  in  this  mill  are  eleven  per  day  (with  nine  on 
Saturday),  viz,  from  G  to  12,  and  1.30  to  6.30.  When  overtime  is  im- 
perative a  permit  of  the  local  authorities  has  to  be  obtained,  and  the 
operatives  are  paid  one-third  extra.  There  is  never  any  night  work, 
as  that  is  forbidden  by  law.  The  average  daily  wages  paid  by  this 
mill,  as  furnished  me  from  the  books,  are  as  follows : 


Operatives. 

Wages. 

Operatives. 

Wages. 

Operatives. 

Wages. 

Weavers  

$1.03 
.74 

.62 
.62 

On  fly  frames  — .   

$0.62 
.85 
.55 
..51 
.64 

On  reels  .   -  _ 

$0.55 
.77 
.97 
1.06 

Picker  hands    . 

Mule  spinners  _   - 

Outside  laborers  

On  cards   .  _   

Ring  spinners 

Wood  workers   

On  draAv  frames  

Twisters-- 

Iron  workers.-   -  . 

On  combers--   

On  gassing  frames  _ 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  Swiss  workers,  this  mill,  in  common 
with  most  others,  has  had  to  employ  Italian  help.  They  now  have 
125  Italian  girls,  and  for  lodging  them  the  mill  has  built  a  special 
home,  which  cost  $24,125.  The  girls  are  lodged  in  large  rooms,  each 
accommodating  a  dozen  or  more,  and  there  are  bathrooms,  a  sick 
room,  and  a  large  garden  attached.  The  home  is  looked  after  by  six 
Catholic  nuns,  who  are  paid  by  the  firm.  Each  girl  pays  90  centimes 
(17.4  cents)  a  day  for  food,  lodging,  light,  etc.  The  mills  as  a  rule 
have  little  trouble  in  getting  help  from  Italy,  and  very  often  a  mill 
simply  notifies  the  local  priest  of  the  number  of  new  hands  needed, 
and  he  notifies  his  fellow- clergyman  in  Italy,  who  informs  his  flock, 
and  the  required  number  are  shortly  on  hand. 

Besides  the  special  large  tenement  house  for  Italian  girls,  this  firm 
has  about  100  dwelling  houses,  each  composed  of  one  living  room, 
two  or  three  small  rooms,  kitchen,  and  cellar,  with  3,240  square  feet  of 
land  for  gardening.  The  rent  varies  according  to  location,  size  of 
rooms,  etc.,  from  $15  to  $35  a  year.  The  manager  stated  that  in  the 
neighboring  villages  the  usual  rents  for  similar  dwellings  are  $48  to 
$58.  The  mill  furnishes  operatives  with  pure  milk  at  3f  cents  a  quart, 
the  outside  price  being  4.3  cents.  The  firm  is  now  building  a  house 
w^here  bathrooms,  kitchen  for  cooking  and  warming  up,  reading 
room,' and  dining  room  will  be  provided  for  the  use  of  the  oper- 
atives. There  are  now  two  kindergartens  managed  by  the  firm, 
for  which  the  workpeople  pay  4  cents  per  baby  per  month.  The 
operatives  have  their  own  society  for  cases  of  sickness,  and  they  also 
have  a  cooperative  store  where  they  buy  provisions,  and  from 
which  they  receive  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  dividend  of  all  profits 
made  above  cost  and  expenses,  which  usually  runs  about  15  per  cent 
a  year. 

AVAGES  AND  PRICES  OF  THE  NECESSARIES  OF  LIFE. 

An  Austrian  manufacturer  who  has  made  an  investigation  of  Swiss 
cotton  manufacturing  gives  me  the  following  tables  as  the  actual 
average  daily  wages  and  cost  of  food  at  four  mills  in  different  parts 
of  Switzerland  in  the  first  part  of  1907,  reduced  to  American  cur- 
rency.  The  first  table  covers  the  wages: 


166 


COTTON  FABRICS  11^  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Operatives. 


Blow  room: 

Head  man  

Workman  

Waste  man  

Cards: 

Head  man  

Card  grinder  

Can  boys  

Lap  carrier  

Oiler  

Draw-frame  girls  

Speeders: 

Head  man  

Oiler  

Speeder  hands— - 

Creelers  

Ring  spinning: 

Head  man  

Oiler  

Spinner  

Doffer  

Mules: 

Head  man  

Oiler  

Spinner  

Piecer  

Roving  carriers- 
Reeling: 

Head  man  

Reelers  

Packers  

Women  bundlers- 
Machine  shop: 

Head  man  

Machinist  

Wood  worker  

Smith  

Carpenter  shop: 

Cabinetmaker  

Carpenter  

Turbine  minder  

Fireman  

Transmission  tender- 
Night  watchman  

Porter  

Repair  department: 

Head  man  

Repairer  

Mason  


Average  per  day- 


No.  1. 


.48 

1  22 
!61 
.65 


.63 


Mills. 

No.  2.    No.  3.    No.  4 


1.15 
.61 
.78 
.51 
.32 


.41 
.65 
.42 

..22 
.73 


.50 


It  will  be  noticed  that  some  of  the  mills  show  no  doffers.  In  a  good 
many  cases  none  are  employed,  but  each  three  spinners  work  to- 
gether and  doff  their  frames  themselves. 

The  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  for  the  operatives  in  the  four 
mills  were  as  follows: 


Mills. 

Article. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

Gents. 

Cents. 

Bread,  average  quality 

  _-_2.2  pounds- - 

6.9 

6.5 

5.8 

6.5 

Meat                             _  . 

 do— 

34.5 

32.5 

28.8 

36.5 

Flour  

 do-  . 

9.7 

7.7 

9.5 

9.5 

Potatoes.-  -   

 do— 

1.6 

1.6 

2.0 

2.0 

Sugar  

 do— 

10.6 

17.8 

10.6 

13.4 

Coffee  

   do-  _ 

44.4 

62.9 

42.6 

34.7 

Salt  

 do— 

2.8 

4.1 

2.0 

2.2 

Milk  

  quart-- 

3.9 

4.1 

3.7 

3.9 

Kerosene  _   —   — .  _ 

 do— 

3.5 

8.5 

4.1 

4.2 

Beer    

 do— 

7.7 

6.3 

5.7 

6.7 

1  nnrtinn 

4.1 

1 

SWITZERLAND  COTTON  GOODS  PRODUCTIONS. 


167 


SWISS  CONTROL  THEIR  HOME  MARKET  BY  A  TARIFF. 

The  Swiss  cotton  industry  is  an  old  one  and  Switzerland  was  one  of 
the  first  countries  to  take  advantage  of  the  English  inventions  in  the 
early  development  of  cotton  manufacturing.  The  number  of  spindles 
steadily  increased  until  1875,  when  the  mills  began  to  feel  the  restric- 
tions placed  upon  their  export  business  by  the  tariffs  of  other  coun- 
tries. This  was  the  high-water  mark,  and  the  industry  began  to  de- 
cline and  the  spindles  to  dwindle  until,  in  1905,  the  spinners  succeeded 
in  getting  a  "  fighting  tariff  "  applied  to  this  industry  to  check  the 
inroads  of  foreign  cotton  manufactures.  This  has  given  the  mills 
more  control  over  their  home  market,  and  with  the  demand  that  has 
sprung  up  for  cloth  and  yarn  for  the  embroidery  business,  they  have 
once  more  begun  to  slowly  increase  their  capacity.  The  Swiss  spin- 
dles now  number  about  1,500,000. 

Swiss  cotton  mills  now  stand  in  the  front  rank  in  the  production  of 
fine  yarns  and  cloth  and  in  some  lines  their  only  competitor  is  Great 
Britain.  There  is  a  good  business  in  medium  numbers,  but,  since  the 
Italian  and  other  markets  have  been  lost  to  them,  there  is  very  little 
manufacture  of  coarse  counts.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  fine  counts 
of  the  Swiss  make  the  cost  of  the  raw  material  a  smaller  factor  in  the 
total  cost  of  the  finished  article,  the  price  of  raw  cotton  determines, 
in  great  measure,  the  profit  or  loss  in  the  business.  The  great  fluctu- 
ations in  the  price  of  the  raw  material,  and  the  changeability  of  the 
market  for  finished  goods,  as  regards  price  and  quality,  was  such 
from  1900  to  1905  that  the  mills  were,  on  the  whole,  not  very  success- 
ful.   Since  1905  the  business  has  been  better. 

THE  FEELING  AGAINST  COMBINATION. 

In  1905  the  Swiss  spinners  were  pleased  because  the  English  yarn 
producers  were  so  taken  up  with  the  Chinese  and  Indian  markets  as 
to  leave  the  Continent  free.  In  the  last  days  of  1904  the  majority  of 
the  spinners  united  to  form  a  syndicate  to  fix  minimum  prices  for 
yarn,  and  so  stop  the  ruinous  losses  they  were  suffering.  This  was 
beneficial  and  resulted  in  some  prosperity  to  the  trade,  but  only  lasted 
as  long  as  the  stress  continued.  This  tended  to  do  away  with  the 
spirit  of  individual  liberty  that  is  usually  so  strongly  manifest.  The 
"  Canton  "  spirit,  that  is  so  strong  in  Switzerland,  does  not  tend  to 
unity  among  the  mills,  even  where  their  interests  are  identical,  and 
where  modern  economical  development  makes  it  necessary  for  inter- 
ests to  work  together  for  the  common  good.  The  industry  has  ap- 
proached a  condition  where  it  is  not  possible  to  increase  the  output  to 
compensate  for  the  increased  cost,  due  to  rising  wages  and  the  lower- 
ing of  the  number  of  hours,  and  the  only  solution  is  to  limit  the  man- 
aging costs  by  combinations,  but  the  mills  are  too  independent  for 
any  general  agreement. 

The  yarn  exports  continued  to  drop  back  during  1905,  and  Austrian 
demand  for  fine  yarns  began  to  decline  under  the  new  tariff,  which 
levies  38  kronen  ($7.71)  instead  of  33.3  kronen  ($6.76)  and  28.5 
kronen  ($5.78)  (on  Nos.  50  to  60  and  above  No.  60,  respectively),  on 
Nos.  50  to  70,  and  for  Nos.  70  to  80  as  much  as  43  kronen  ($8.73) 
against  the  former  28.5  kronen  ($5.78).   This  caused  an  increase  of 


168 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


fine  spinning  in  Anstria.  Germany  reduced  the  tariff  on  coarse  yarns, 
but  not  on  fine  yarns,  as  they  were  afraid  of  Swiss  competition  in  the 
latter.  The  French  tariff  practically  shuts  out  Swiss  yarns.  Owing  to 
the  representations  of  the  spinners,  the  Swiss  Government  in  190G 
raised  the  tariff  on  yarns,  which  Avas  an  aid  to  the  home  mills,  but  ow- 
ing to  the  embroidery  demands  for  cloth  and  yarn,  it  did  not  stop 
the  import. 

There  Avas  a  strong  demand  for  broad  muslins  120  to  140  centi- 
meters (47.2  to  55  inches  wide) ,  and  contracts  were  made  up  into  1907. 
This  demand  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  several  new  weaving 
establishments  and  in  old  mills  being  changed  from  narrow  to  broad 
goods.  In  the  regular  muslin  weaves  of  70  to  80  yarns,  in  widths 
under  100  centimeters  (39.37  inches)  there  was  also  a  good  profit  and, 
consequently,  looms  on  medium  calicoes  were  changed  to  these  articles. 

PROSPERITY  DURING  PAST  TWO  YEARSi. 

In  1906  the  business  was  unexpectedly  prosperous,  and  as  the  whole 
world  seemed  to  need  goods  the  export  business  revived.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  so  many  looms  had  been  changed  from  calicoes  to  mus- 
lins, the  calico  yarns  were  slack  the  first  part  of  the  year,  but  a  de- 
mand for  calico  springing  up,  prices  rose  rapidly.  In  No.  38s,  for 
instance,  the  price  in  January  was  2.35  francs  a  kilo  (45.3  cents  per 
2.2  pounds),  but  in  December  it  was  3  francs  a  kilo  (57.9  cents). 
The  strike  that  broke  out  in  some  spinning  establishments  at  Mulhau- 
sen  aided  in  increasing  the  price  of  yarn,  but  the  strike  did  not  last 
long.  There  were  continued  labor  difficulties,  and  costs  of  operation 
increased.  Production,  which  had  increased  through  the  addition  of 
new  machines,  was  brought  back  to  the  old  point  by  the  successful 
agitation  for  shorter  hours.  The  great  increase  in  the  embroidery 
business  helped  the  mills  on  fine  spinning  and  weaving,  and  there  was 
a  great  demand  for  Nos.  60  to  80,  and  for  No.  120s  throughout  the 
year.  A  brisk  demand  for  ply  yarns  resulted,  which  the  twisters 
could  not  satisfy,  resulting  in  large  purchases  of  yarn,  extending  up 
into  1908.  The  embroidery  mills  are  more  and  more  using  40s,  3  ply, 
instead  of  60s,  2  ply,  so  that  there  was  also  a  good  business  done  by 
the  medium  count  mills.  This  change  has  resulted  in  many  spinning 
mills  having  to  change  very  considerably  the  counts  they  spin,  which 
involves  some  outlay. 

During  1907  the  industry  as  a  whole,  following  the  lead  of  em- 
broidery, Avas  very  prosperous,  but  the  money  crisis  in  the  United 
States  affected  all  branches  of  the  industry  adversely.  For  the  year, 
as  a  whole,  the  mills  made  goods  profits,  and  not  only  the  fine  Aveav- 
ing  but  flannels,  drills,  blouses,  betilles,  and  other  lines  paid  well. 

The  SavIss  spinners  do  not  have  any  uniform  selling  agreement, 
such  as  is  the  case  in  Italy  and  other  countries,  for  the  reason  that  the 
mills  are  hard  to  get  into  line  on  any  question.  The  Spinners  and 
Weavers'  Association,  almost  since  its  inception  in  1878,  has  tried  to 
obtain  some  uniform  agreement  on  this  subject,  but  could  never  get  a 
majority  of  the  mills  to  sign.  The  conditions  they  have  sought  to  ob- 
tain are:  (1)  Conditions  of  payment  to  be  4  per  cent  discount  and 
one  month  bank  remittance,  or  3  per  cent  discount  and  3  months 
bank  remittance;  interest  on  current  accounts  of  5  per  cent;  (2) 


SWITZERLAND  COTTOX  GOODS  PRODUCTIONS. 


169 


shipment  of  yarn  free  to  the  nearest  railway  station  to  the  receiver; 
(3)  return  of  empty  cases;  (4)  rate  of  exchange  to  be  mean  between 
letter  and  money  on  the  day  of  arrival  of  the  remittance. 

IMPORTS  or  RAW  COTTON  EXPORTS  OF  COTTON  GOODS. 

About  40  per  cent  of  the  cotton  used  in  Switzerland  is  Egyptian, 
the  remainder  being  American,  with  a  small  quantity  of  Indian. 
In  proportion  to  its  number  of  spindles  no  other  country  uses  any- 
thing like  as  much  Egyptian  cotton  as  Switzerland.  The  following 
table  shows  the  import  of  cottons  for  the  years  given : 


Kind. 


American. 
Egyptian- 
Indian  

Other  


Total. 
Reexports-. 


Net  imports  __;„.  .  ^.  51,501,027 


1896. 

1900. 

1906. 

Pounds. 
28,761,318 
21,880,871 

2,011,3701 
505,598 

Pounds. 
28,299,138 
22,279,354 
372,476 
154,500 

Pounds. 
30,111,268 
19,706,133 
2,271,2?.2 
221,502 

53,159,157 
1,658,130 

51,105,468 
2,624,080 

52,370,125 
1,128.007 

,51,501,027  1  4^,^81,388 

51,242,118 

The  Swiss  exports  of  yarns  and  cloth  have  been  iieciinizig,  so  th>it,' 
in  spite  of  the  great  increase  in  the  exi)ort  of  embroideries,  the  total 
export  of  cotton  manufactures  was  less  i-i  1906  than  in  1900.  viz, 
35,782,822  pounds  and  36,681,833  pounds,  respectivelj^.  The  total 
exports  of  cotton  manufactures  from  Switzerland  to  the  several 
countries,  in  1906,  Avcre  as  follows : 


Description. 

Exported  to- 

United 
States. 

United 
Kingdom. 

Germany. 

Asia. 

Mexico 
and  Cen- 
tral and 

South 
America. 

France. 

Yarns,  single,  gray  

$40,916 
21,403 

$1,351 
17,949 

$1,444,026 
92,640 

$48,443 
13,510 

$74,305 
38,986 

other  yarns  

Total  of  yarns  

Piece  goods: 

Gray  

Bleached  

Dyed  

Printed    _. 

Of  dyed  yarn           — -  . 

Total  of  piece  goods  

Embroideries  __                   _  . 

Laces             _  -   

Madc-up  goods  _. 

Other  goods  

Grand  total   

$713,907 

02,319 

19,300 

1,536,666 

713,907 

61,953 

113,291 

54,812 
206,147 
35,126 

2,702 

16,984 
146,101 
100,729 
4,825 
2,702 

712,363 
274,832 
145,715 
7,913 
20,265 

4,439 
50,952 
252,251 
684,957 
335,820 

7,141 
94,763 

226,196 
54,040 

129,117 

60,988 
38,000 
113,291 
18,335 
19,493 

358,787 

277,341 

1,161,088 

1,328,419 

511,257 

250,707 

13,475,046 
985 
3,281 
791,967 

5,474,059 
1,737 
11,966 
545,032 

1,872,480 
10,036 
28,178 
298,378 

318,830  1  1,650,343 
386  1  772 
6,369  101,325 
335,048  167,331 

1,516,594 
1,737 
28,757 
44,776 

14,695,965 

6,329,435 

4,906,832 

2,702,965 

2,492,981 

1,955,862 

170 


COTTON  FABRICS  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Description. 

Exported  to — Continued. 

Grand  total. 

Austria- 
Hungary. 

Italy. 

Balkan 
States. 

All  other 
countries. 

Yarns,  single,  gray   _  .   

Other  yarns   _   _   

Total  of  yarns  

Piece  goods: 

Gray    

Bleached    

Dyed  . 

Printed   _   

Of  dyed  yarn  _   

Total  of  piece  goods 

Embroideries  

Laces  

Made-up  goods    

Other  goods.   . 

Grand  total    __ 

$227,354 
zUo,247 

$16,598 
94,184 

$386 
43,425 

$57,900 
127,786 

$1,911,279 
1,372,037 

435,601 

1  1  A  'TOO 

110,782 

43,811 

185,680 

98,816 
98,430 
71 ,410 
46,899 
3,088 

42,653 
83,955 
115,028 
93,605 
4,053 

20,458 
86,271 
50,759 
308,028 
210,370 

48,057 
188,368 
258,620 
150,347 
203,808 

1,066,711 
1,328,41!> 
1,375,125 
1,368,94!) 
931  41 8 

318,643 

339,294 

675,885 

849,200' 

0,070,622 

506,625 
11,966 
6,176 
54,619 

603,125 
38,600 
18,721 
46,899 

210,177 
2,702 
6,948 
32,617 

3,138,373 
5,983 
26,634 
250,707 

28,766,261 
74,881 
238.355 
2,570,374 

1,333,630 

1,157 ,421 

972,141 

4,456,583 

41,003.815 

Switzerland's  best  customers— imports  or  cotton  goods. 

It  is  seen  that,  tjie  beqt  ci'stcmeAS  -for  Swiss  embroidery  are  the 
Unitefl*  States  and' ^Ee  United  fCingdom,  while  for  cotton-mill  prod- 
uC'.s  the  best  inarkets  are  those  nearest  to  Switzerland.  The  best  yarn 
market  is  Gerifliany,, while  g^'tiy  goods  go  to  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Fri>n'ce,*^.ii,d  blcach^d.gooiJs.  to  Germany,  America,  and  England.  Of 
the  smaller,  amounts  of  other  cloths  the  solid  dyed  goods  go  to  Asia, 
South  America,  and  Germany;  colored  goods  to  Asia,  the  Balkans, 
and  South  America,  and  printed  goods  to  Asia  and  the  ]3alkan  States. 

Swiss  exports  in  embroideries  are  increasing  rapidly,  and  the  trade 
in  embroidery  cloths  and  fine  bleached  cloths  is  also  increasing,  but 
in  most  other  lines  the  cotton  exports  have  been  declining,  especially 
in  yarns.  On  the  other  hand  the  imports  of  cotton  goods  into  Swit- 
zerland have  been  on  the  increase,  due  mainly  to  the  expansion  of  the 
embroidery  business.  This  condition  of  affairs  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  following  table,  contrasting  the  exports  and  imports  of  cotton 
manufactures  in  1900  and  1906 : 


Description. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1900. 

1906. 

1900. 

1908. 

Single  yarns,  gray  _      - 

$263,036 

$1,138,932 

$2,665,720 

$1,911,279 

Other  yarns.-                   -   — 

1,514,403 

1,154,807 

1,199,440 

1,372,037 

Cloth: 

Gray      

3,324,720 

5,073,391 

1,421,049 

1,066,711 

134,663 

222,915 

352,151 

1,328,419 

Dyed    

426,839 

361,875 

756,932 

1,375,125 

Printed     

409,361 

562,981 

1,511,506 

1,368,919 

Of  dyed  yarn  

90,467 

394,492 

1,276,354 

931,418 

Embroideries    

115,149 

253,332 

21,339,385 

28,768,204 

154,235 

271,312 

62,771 

74,884 

639,332 

2,126,667 

71,279 

238,355 

2,965,960 

3,693,879 

1,871,294 

2,570,374 

Totals                  -      -  -   

10,038,195 

15,254,583 

32,527,881 

41,003,815 

SWITZERLAND  COTTON  GOODS  PRODUCTIONS.  171 

% 

EXPORTS  TO  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Swiss  shipments  of  cotton  manufactures  to  the  Philippines  in 
190G  amounted  to  $334,866,  and  consisted  of  the  following,  according 
to  the  Swiss  returns : 


Description. 

Pounds. 

"Value. 

Description. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Yarn,  bleached,  glazed,  or 
mercerized  

23,142 
178,083 

66,120 
150,313 
7,714 
174,557 

$16,732 
59,658 

39,779 
78,914 
4,987 
94,278 

Piques,  damasks,  brlHian- 
tixies,  etc.-  —  - 

$2,645 
8,816 
1,763 

14,108 
4,819 

$2,323 
7,178 
2,68.3 

24,388 
3,944 

Yarn,  dyed  or  printed  

Brocades  ___  .... 

Cloth: 

Bleached  or  mercerized  

Colored  

Printed  -  . 

Embroidery         .  _ 

Embroidered  cloths   

Other  articles  of  cotton  

Total  

Of  colored  yarn   

632,108 

334,866 

The  main  article  shipped  by  the  Swiss  is  the  cotton  netting  called 
"  betilles,"  used  by  the  Filipino  women  for  shirt  waists  which  are 
worn  plain,  embroidered,  colored,  dyed,  etc. 


O 


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